Category Archives: Cell Medicine

PUBLIC RELEASE DATE:

28-May-2014

Contact: Robert Miranda cogcomm@aol.com Cell Transplantation Center of Excellence for Aging and Brain Repair

Tampa, Fla. (May 28, 2014) To be suitable for medical transplantation, one idea is that human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) need to remain "undifferentiated" i.e. they are not changing into other cell types. In determining the best way to culture hESCs so that they remain undifferentiated and also grow, proliferate and survive, researchers have used blood cell "feeder-layer" cultures using animal-derived feeder cells, often from mice (mouse embryonic fibroblasts [MEFs]). This approach has, however, been associated with a variety of contamination problems, including pathogen and viral transmission.

To avoid contamination problems, a Brazilian research team has investigated the use of human menstrual blood-derived mesenchymal cells (MBMCs) as feeder layers and found that "MBMCs can replace animal-derived feeder systems in human embryonic stem cell culture systems and support their growth in an undifferentiated stage."

The study will be published in a future issue of Cell Medicine, but is currently freely available on-line as an unedited early e-pub at: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/cm/pre-prints/content-CM1019silvadosSantos.

"Human embryonic stem cells present a continuous proliferation in an undifferentiated state, resulting in an unlimited amount of cells with the potential to differentiate toward any type of cell in the human body," said study corresponding author Dr. Regina Coeli dos Santos Goldenberg of the Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. "These characteristics make hESCs good candidates for cell based therapies."

Feeder-layers for hESCs comprised of MEFs have been efficiently used for decades but, because of the clinical drawbacks, the authors subsequently experimented with human menstrual blood cells as a potential replacement for animal-derived feeder-layers, not only for negating the contamination issues, but also because human menstrual blood is so accessible. MBMCs are without ethical encumbrances and shortages, nor are they difficult to access - a problem with other human cells, such as umbilical cord blood cells, adult bone marrow cells or placenta cells.

"Menstrual blood is derived from uterine tissues," explained the researchers. "These cells are widely available 12 times a year from women of child-bearing age. The cells are easily obtained, possess the capability of long-term proliferation and are clinically compatible with hESCs-derived cells."

The researchers found that their culture system using MBMCs as a feeder-layer for hESCs are the "closest and more suitable alternative to animal-free conditions for growing hESCs" and a "good candidate for large-expansion of cells for clinical application." They also found no difference in growth factor expression when comparing the use of growth factors in both the standard feeder system using animal cells and the feeder system they tested using hESCs.

Continued here:
Brazilian researchers find human menstrual blood-derived cells 'feed' embryonic stem cells

The world has great expectations that stem cell research one day will revolutionize medicine. But in order to exploit the potential of stem cells, we need to understand how their development is regulated. Now researchers from University of Southern Denmark offer new insight.

Stem cells are cells that are able to develop into different specialized cell types with specific functions in the body. In adult humans these cells play an important role in tissue regeneration. The potential to act as repair cells can be exploited for disease control of e.g. Parkinson's or diabetes, which are diseases caused by the death of specialized cells. By manipulating the stem cells, they can be directed to develop into various specialized cell types. This however, requires knowledge of the processes that regulate their development.

Now Danish researchers from University of Southern Denmark report a new discovery that provides valuable insight into basic mechanisms of stem cell differentiation. The discovery could lead to new ways of making stem cells develop into exactly the type of cells that a physician may need for treating a disease.

"We have discovered that proteins called transcription factors work together in a new and complex way to reprogram the DNA strand when a stem cell develops into a specific cell type. Until now we thought that only a few transcription factors were responsible for this reprogramming, but that is not the case," explain postdoc Rasmus Siersbaek, Professor Susanne Mandrup and ph.d. Atefeh Rabiee from Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Southern Denmark.

"An incredibly complex and previously unknown interplay between transcription factors takes place at specific locations in the cell's DNA, which we call 'hotspots'. This interplay at 'hotspots' appears to be of great importance for the development of stem cells. In the future it will therefore be very important to explore these 'hotspots' and the interplay between transcription factors in these regions in order to better understand the mechanisms that control the development of stem cells," explains Rasmus Siersbaek.

"When we understand these mechanisms, we have much better tools to make a stem cell develop in the direction we wish," he says.

Siersbaek, Mandrup and their colleagues made the discovery while studying how stem cells develop into fat cells. The Mandrup research group is interested in this differentiation process, because fundamental understanding of this will allow researchers to manipulate fat cell formation.

"We know that there are two types of fat cells; brown and white. The white fat cells store fat, while brown fat cells actually increase combustion of fat. Brown fat cells are found in especially infants, but adults also have varying amounts of these cells.

"If we manage to find ways to make stem cells develop into brown rather than white fat cells, it may be possible to reduce the development of obesity. Our findings open new possibilities to do this by focusing on the specific sites on the DNA where proteins work together," the researchers explain.

Details of the study

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Stem cell development: Experts offer insight into basic mechanisms of stem cell differentiation

May 22, 2014

The world has great expectations that stem cell research one day will revolutionize medicine. But in order to exploit the potential of stem cells, we need to understand how their development is regulated. Now researchers from University of Southern Denmark offer new insight.

Stem cells are cells that are able to develop into different specialized cell types with specific functions in the body. In adult humans these cells play an important role in tissue regeneration. The potential to act as repair cells can be exploited for disease control of e.g. Parkinson's or diabetes, which are diseases caused by the death of specialized cells. By manipulating the stem cells, they can be directed to develop into various specialized cell types. This however, requires knowledge of the processes that regulate their development.

Now Danish researchers from University of Southern Denmark report a new discovery that provides valuable insight into basic mechanisms of stem cell differentiation. The discovery could lead to new ways of making stem cells develop into exactly the type of cells that a physician may need for treating a disease.

"We have discovered that proteins called transcription factors work together in a new and complex way to reprogram the DNA strand when a stem cell develops into a specific cell type. Until now we thought that only a few transcription factors were responsible for this reprogramming, but that is not the case", explain postdoc Rasmus Siersbaek, Professor Susanne Mandrup and ph.d. Atefeh Rabiee from Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Southern Denmark.

"An incredibly complex and previously unknown interplay between transcription factors takes place at specific locations in the cell's DNA, which we call 'hotspots'. This interplay at 'hotspots' appears to be of great importance for the development of stem cells. In the future it will therefore be very important to explore these 'hotspots' and the interplay between transcription factors in these regions in order to better understand the mechanisms that control the development of stem cells", explains Rasmus Siersbaek.

"When we understand these mechanisms, we have much better tools to make a stem cell develop in the direction we wish", he says.

Siersbaek, Mandrup and their colleagues made the discovery while studying how stem cells develop into fat cells. The Mandrup research group is interested in this differentiation process, because fundamental understanding of this will allow researchers to manipulate fat cell formation.

"We know that there are two types of fat cells; brown and white. The white fat cells store fat, while brown fat cells actually increase combustion of fat. Brown fat cells are found in especially infants, but adults also have varying amounts of these cells.

"If we manage to find ways to make stem cells develop into brown rather than white fat cells, it may be possible to reduce the development of obesity. Our findings open new possibilities to do this by focusing on the specific sites on the DNA where proteins work together", the researchers explain.

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New insight into stem cell development

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Newswise May 13, 2014 (BRONX, NY) Healthy stem cells work to restore or repair the bodys tissues, but cancer stem cells have a more nefarious mission: to spawn malignant tumors. Cancer stem cells were discovered a decade ago, but their origins and identity remain largely unknown.

Today, the Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research at Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University hosted its second Stem Cell Symposium, focusing on cancer stem cells. Leading scientists from the U.S., Canada and Belgium discussed the latest advances in the field and highlighted the challenges of translating this knowledge into targeted cancer treatments.

These exceptional scientists are pioneers in the field and have made enormous contributions to our understanding of the biology of stem cells and cancer, said Paul Frenette, M.D., director and chair of Einsteins Stem Cell Institute and professor of medicine and of cell biology. Hopefully this symposium will spark productive dialogues and collaborations among the researchers who attend.

The presenters were:

Cancer Stem Cells and Malignant Progression, Robert A. Weinberg, Ph.D., Daniel K. Daniel K. Ludwig Professor for Cancer Research Director, Ludwig Center of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Member, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research Towards Unification of Cancer Stem Cell and Clonal Evolution Models of Intratumoral Heterogeneity, John Dick, Ph.D., Canada Research Chair in Stem Cell Biology and senior scientist, Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network; professor of molecular genetics, University of Toronto Normal and Neoplastic Stem Cells, Irving L. Weissman, M.D., Director, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine and Director, Stanford Ludwig Center for Cancer Stem Cell Research and Medicine; Professor of Pathology and Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine Cell Fate Decisions During Tumor Formation, Leonard I. Zon, M.D., Grousbeck Professor of Pediatric Medicine, Director, Stem Cell Research Program, Howard Hughes Medical Institute/Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School Skin Stem Cells in Silence, Action and Cancer, Elaine Fuchs, Ph.D., Rebecca C. Lancefield Professor, Laboratory of Mammalian Cell Biology and Development, Howard Hughes Medical Institute/The Rockefeller University Mechanism Regulating Stemness in Skin Cancer, Cdric Blanpain, M.D., Ph.D., professor of stem cell and developmental biology, WELBIO, Interdisciplinary Research Institute, Universit Libre de Bruxelles Mouse Models of Malignant GBM: Cancer Stem Cells and Beyond, Luis F. Parada, Ph.D., professor and chairman, Diana K and Richard C. Strauss Distinguished Chair in Developmental Biology; Director, Kent Waldrep Foundation Center for Basic Neuroscience Research; Southwestern Ball Distinguished Chair in Nerve Regeneration Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center

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About Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University

Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University is one of the nations premier centers for research, medical education and clinical investigation. During the 2013-2014 academic year, Einstein is home to 734 M.D., 236 Ph.D. students, 106 students in the combined M.D./Ph.D. program, and 353 postdoctoral research fellows. The College of Medicine has more than 2,000 full-time faculty members located on the main campus and at its clinical affiliates. In 2013, Einstein received more than $155 million in awards from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). This includes the funding of major research centers at Einstein in diabetes, cancer, liver disease, and AIDS. Other areas where the College of Medicine is concentrating its efforts include developmental brain research, neuroscience, cardiac disease, and initiatives to reduce and eliminate ethnic and racial health disparities. Its partnership with Montefiore Medical Center the University Hospital and academic medical center for Einstein, advances clinical and translational research to accelerate the pace at which new discoveries become the treatments and therapies that benefit patients. Through its extensive affiliation network involving Montefiore, Jacobi Medical CenterEinsteins founding hospital, and five other hospital systems in the Bronx, Manhattan, Long Island and Brooklyn, Einstein runs one of the largest residency and fellowship training programs in the medical and dental professions in the United States. For more information, please visit http://www.einstein.yu.edu, read our blog, follow us on Twitter, like us on Facebook, and view us on YouTube.

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Cancer Stem Cells Under the Microscope at Albert Einstein College of Medicine Symposium

Beverly Hills, California (PRWEB) May 12, 2014

The top Beverly Hills pain management doctors at BZ Pain are now offering stem cell procedures for those with joint arthritis and pain. The outpatient regenerative medicine procedures are typically able to relieve pain and help patients avoid the need for joint replacement surgery of the shoulder, hip, knee and ankle. Call (310) 626-1526 for more information and scheduling.

Over a million joint replacement procedures are performed each year in America. These procedures should be considered an absolute last resort, since the implants are not meant to last forever. There are potential complications with joint replacement.

Therefore, stem cell procedures are an excellent option. They often help repair and regenerate damaged tissue, which is very different than what occurs with steroid injections. The stem cell procedures include options derived from amniotic fluid, fat tissue, or one's bone marrow.

Initial studies are showing the benefits of stem cell procedures for degenerative arthritis. With exceptionally low risk, there is a significant upside with the stem cell pain management therapies.

Dr. Zarrini at BZ Pain is a Double Board Certified Los Angeles pain management doctor, and is able to provide both medical and interventional therapies. The procedures do not involve any fetal tissue or embryonic stem cells. The procedures may help degenerative disease symptoms in the shoulder, hip, knee and ankle to name a few joints.

For those interested in stem cell therapy Los Angeles and Beverly Hills trusts, call BZ Pain today at (310) 626-1526.

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Top Beverly Hills Pain Management Doctors at BZ Pain Now Offering Stem Cell Procedures for Joint Arthritis for Pain ...

(PRWEB UK) 9 May 2014

Over the course of the human life span the body ages and becomes less able to repair itself, allowing it to become more prone to disease and illness. In the ever developing field of scientific discovery researchers have become intrigued with the concept of finding a way to slow down age-related diseases and prolonging life through the use of medicine. Since the Japanese scientist Shinya Yamanaka (http://bit.ly/1kWb20u) first discovered iPS cells in adult tissue and pioneered mature cell regeneration, this field in medicine has become one of the most rapidly developing fields in biomedicine.

A research team at the National Institute on Ageing at the National Institutes of Health in the US has discovered a promising strategy to arrest ageing by looking at a chemical called SRT1720 which activates a particular protein called Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1). Previous research has demonstrated that activating SIRT1 can have health benefits in various organisms, and it has been proposed as an anti-ageing protein. This study, published in the March edition of Research Journal: Cell (http://bit.ly/1od2gS5) focused on comparing the lifespan, health and diseases of mice fed the same diet, but with or without the addition of a SRT1720.

Overall they found mice fed a normal diet but with the supplement had a longer natural lifespan on average (about five weeks longer). During their lifetime, additional tests also suggested they had improved muscle function and coordination, improved metabolism, improved glucose tolerance, decreased body fat and cholesterol. All in all this suggests that giving the mice this supplement could protect them from the equivalent of metabolic syndrome, a series of risk factors associated with conditions such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

A study published today in the journal Stem Cell Reports (http://bit.ly/1hBSDF6) and carried out by the Spanish National Cancer Research Centre's Telomeres and Telomerase Group, reveals that the SIRT1 protein is needed to lengthen and maintain telomeres during cell reprogramming. SIRT1 also guarantees the integrity of the genome of stem cells that come out of the cell reprogramming process; these cells are known as iPS cells (induced Pluripotent Stem cells).

The nature of iPS cells, however, is causing intense debate. The latest research shows that chromosome aberrations and DNA damage can accumulate in these cells. "The problem is that we don't know if these cells are really safe," says Mara Luigia De Bonis, a postdoctoral researcher who has done a large part of the work. http://bit.ly/1m5gRgb

Researchers did not look at whether SIRT1 may cause side effects or complications so it is currently unclear whether SIRT1 would be safe in humans, let alone effective, but this interesting research has opened doors to pharmaceutical companies to develop dietary supplements that can help provide anti-aging pills, especially those who suffer hereditary degenerative diseases. These ongoing scientific studies will help shed light on how cell reprogramming guarantees the healthy functioning of stem cells. This knowledge will help to overcome barriers that come out of the use of iPS cells so they may be used in regenerative medicine.

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Production of synthetic SIRT1 as a dietary supplement may help prolong life, states Chemist Direct

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Newswise Two new gifts from The Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation to UCLA totaling $4 million will fund research in stem cell science and digestive diseases and support the recruitment of key faculty at two renowned research centers.

The gifts bring to $30 million The Broad Foundation's total support of faculty recruitment and basic and translational research at the Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research at UCLA and at the Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases at UCLA's Division of Digestive Diseases.

A $2 million gift to the Broad Stem Cell Research Center adds to The Broad Foundation's original 2007 gift of $20 million, which has supported faculty and research and launched the Innovation Award program, which furthers cutting-edge research at the center by giving UCLA stem cell scientists "seed funding" for their research projects. The new gift will enable the continuation of the award program, which has yielded a 10-to-1 return on investment with grantees securing additional funding from other agencies, including the National Institutes of Health and more than $200 million in total grants from the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine, the state's stem cell agency.

"The Broads' generous support has been essential to the development of new therapies that are currently in, or very near, clinical trials for treating blindness, sickle cell disease and cancer," said Dr. Owen Witte, director of the Broad Stem Cell Research Center. "The Broad Stem Cell Research Center's work, supported by critical philanthropic and other resources, is quickly being translated from basic scientific discoveries into new cellular therapies that will change the practice of medicine and offer future treatment options for diseases thought to be incurable, such as muscular dystrophy, autism and AIDS."

The $2 million gift to the Division of Digestive Diseases builds on nearly $6 million in previous commitments from The Broad Foundation since 2003.

The gifts have enabled the division to develop a comprehensive research and clinical enterprise focused on inflammatory bowel disease, one of only a few such centers in the world. Earning a multifold return for The Broad Foundation's initial investments, these grants have enabled investigators to secure $11 million in funding from pharmaceutical companies, the National Institutes of Health and nonprofit foundations.

In addition, The Broad Foundation's Broad Medical Research Program has provided more than $600,000 in grants to UCLA researchers over the past decade for the study of inflammatory bowel disease.

The new gift will support the Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases and research led by Dr. Charalabos "Harry" Pothoulakis, the center's director. Pothoulakis' team conducts research aimed at identifying the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of this group of chronic debilitating diseases, for which there is no cure.

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$4 Million from Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation Will Support UCLA Research

22 hours ago Cells with activated Wnt can no longer be reprogrammed (in green) are located on the periphery; cells that can be reprogrammed are aggregated anad can be seen in the center of the image (in red) Credit: CRG

In 2012, John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamakana were awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine for discovering that adult cells can be reprogrammed into pluripotent ones (iPS); the cells obtained are capable of behaving in a similar way to embryonic stem cells, and hence have enormous potential for regenerative medicine.

However, although there are many research groups around the world studying this process, it is still not completely understood, it is not totally efficient, and it is not safe enough to be used as the basis for a new cell therapy.

Now, researchers at the Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG) in Barcelona have taken a very important step towards understanding cell reprogramming and its efficiency: they have discovered the key role of the Wnt signalling pathway in transforming adult cells into iPS cells.

"Generally, transcription factors are used to try to increase or decrease the cell reprogramming process. We have discovered that we can increase the efficiency of the process by inhibiting the Wnt route", explains Francesco Aulicino, a PhD student in the Reprogramming and Regeneration group, led by Maria Pia Cosma and co-author of the study that has just been published in Stem Cell Reports.

The Wnt signaling pathway is a series of biochemical reactions that are produced in cells. In frogs or lizards, for example, these reactions are those that allow their extremities to regenerate if the animal suffers an injury. Although in general, humans and mammals have lost this regenerative capacity, the Wnt pathway is involved in numerous processes during embryonic development and cell fusion.

As it is in reprogramming. The researchers have studied how the Wnt route behaves throughout the entire process of transforming cells into iPS cells, which usually lasts two weeks. It is a very dynamic process that produces oscillations from the pathway, which is not active all the time. "We have seen that there are two phases and that in each one of them, Wnt fulfils a different function. And we have shown that by inhibiting it at the beginning of the process and activating it at the end we can increase the efficiency of reprogramming and obtain a larger number of pluripotent cells", indicates Ilda Theka, also a PhD student in Pia Cosma's group and a co-author of the article.

To artificially control the pathway, the group has employed a chemical molecule, Iwp2, which is a Wnt secretion inhibitor that does not permanently alter the cells, something which other research into reprogramming using different factors has still has not been able to acheive.

They have also seen that the exact moment when the Wnt pathway is activated is crucial. Doing it too early, makes the the cells begin to differentiate, for example into neurones or endodermal cells, and they are not reprogrammed.

"It is a very important and an innovative advance in the field of cell reprogramming, because until now this was a very inefficient process. There are many groups trying to understand the mechanism by which adult cells become pluripotent, and what blocks that process and makes only a small percentage of cells end up being reprogrammed. We are providing information on why it happens", says Theka.

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One step closer to cell reprogramming

Scottsdale, Arizona (PRWEB) May 05, 2014

Top Phoenix and Scottsdale foot and ankle doctors at Valley Foot Surgeons are now offering stem cell procedures for the nonoperative treatment of Achilles tendonitis and tears. The regenerative medicine procedures are typically able to provide exceptional pain relief while allowing patients the ability to avoid surgery. Call (480) 420-3499 for more information and scheduling about the foot and ankle stem cell procedures.

To date, the lead foot and ankle doctor at Valley Foot Surgeons, Dr. Richard Jacoby, has performed close to 100 regenerative medicine procedures. Typically, these are administered for a variety of conditions such as diabetic ulcers, foot and ankle arthritis, plantar fasciitis, and Achilles injuries.

Conditions with the Achilles tendon may include pain due to chronic tendonitis or tears from degeneration. This may occur during a sporting activity, traumatic event, or simply as part of an individual's tendon weakening after taking quinolone antibiotics.

The stem cell procedures are performed as an outpatient, with the injections consisting of amniotic derived stem cells. The material is harvested from consenting donors after scheduled c-section procedures, with no fetal tissue at all being used.

The material is exceptionally rich in stem cells, growth factors, hyaluronic acid, and more. This can dramatically improve pain relief and healing, which is very different from how steroid medications work.

All too often, traditional treatments for Achilles tendonitis and tears fail to provide relief. This may lead to potentially risky surgery, where complications may lead to continued disability.

With the stem cells for Achilles tears and tendonitis, patients go through an outpatient procedure that is low risk and offers the potential for avoiding the risks of surgery while speeding up recovery.

Dr. Jacoby at Valley Foot Surgeons has been a four time Phoenix Top Doc Winner and sees patients out of two offices in the Valley. For the top stem cell treatment for achilles conditions, diabetic wounds, foot and ankle arthritis and more, call (480) 420-3499.

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Valley Foot Surgeons Now Offering Stem Cell Procedures for Achilles Tendonitis and Tears for Pain Relief and Helping ...

April Flowers for redOrbit.com Your Universe Online

A new study, from the Stanford University School of Medicine and Montana State University, demonstrates that, when implanted into the reproductive system of a mouse model, stem cells created from adult, infertile men will yield primordial germ cells. Primordial germ cells normally become sperm cells.

The findings, published in Cell Reports, help to further our understanding of a genetic cause of male infertility and basic sperm biology. The research team says that their approach holds considerable potential for clinical applications.

All of the infertile male participants suffer from a genetic mutation that prevents their bodies from producing mature sperm. The study suggests that the men with this condition called azoospermia might have produced germ cells at some point in their early lives, but these cells were lost as the men matured to adulthood.

Our results are the first to offer an experimental model to study sperm development, said Renee Reijo Pera of the Institute for Stem Cell Biology & Regenerative Medicine and Montana State University. Therefore, there is potential for applications to cell-based therapies in the clinic, for example, for the generation of higher quality and numbers of sperm in a dish.

It might even be possible to transplant stem-cell-derived germ cells directly into the testes of men with problems producing sperm, she added. Considerable study to ensure safety and practicality is needed, however, before reaching that point.

Infertility is a fairly common problem, affecting between 10 and 15 percent of couples in the US. The researchers say that many men are affected by genetic causes of infertility, most commonly due to the spontaneous loss of key genes on the Y sex chromosome. Until now, the causes of infertility at the molecular level have not been clear.

The fact that the research team was able to create primordial germ cells from the infertile men is very promising, but they note that these stem cells created far fewer of these sperm progenitors than the stem cells of men without the genetic mutations. They are sure, however, that this research provides a much needed model to study the earliest steps of human reproduction.

We saw better germ-cell differentiation in this transplantation model than weve ever seen, said Reijo Pera, former director of Stanfords Center for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Education. We were amazed by the efficiency. Our dream is to use this model to make a genetic map of human germ-cell differentiation, including some of the very earliest stages.

Humans share many cellular and physiological processes with common laboratory animals such as mice or fruit flies. In reproduction, however, there are significant variances, making it challenging to recreate the human reproductive processes in a laboratory setting. In addition, many crucial steps, such as the development and migration of primordial germ cells to the gonads,occur in the relatively short first days or weeks after conception.

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Stem Cells Of Infertile Men Used To Create Preliminary Sperm Cells