Category Archives: Genetic Engineering

Aug 22nd 2020

HUMANS THINK of themselves as the worlds apex predators. Hence the silence of sabre-tooth tigers, the absence of moas from New Zealand and the long list of endangered megafauna. But SARS-CoV-2 shows how people can also end up as prey. Viruses have caused a litany of modern pandemics, from covid-19, to HIV/AIDS to the influenza outbreak in 1918-20, which killed many more people than the first world war. Before that, the colonisation of the Americas by Europeans was abettedand perhaps made possibleby epidemics of smallpox, measles and influenza brought unwittingly by the invaders, which annihilated many of the original inhabitants.

The influence of viruses on life on Earth, though, goes far beyond the past and present tragedies of a single species, however pressing they seem. Though the study of viruses began as an investigation into what appeared to be a strange subset of pathogens, recent research puts them at the heart of an explanation of the strategies of genes, both selfish and otherwise.

Viruses are unimaginably varied and ubiquitous. And it is becoming clear just how much they have shaped the evolution of all organisms since the very beginnings of life. In this, they demonstrate the blind, pitiless power of natural selection at its most dramatic. Andfor one group of brainy bipedal mammals that viruses helped createthey also present a heady mix of threat and opportunity.

As our essay in this weeks issue explains, viruses are best thought of as packages of genetic material that exploit another organisms metabolism in order to reproduce. They are parasites of the purest kind: they borrow everything from the host except the genetic code that makes them what they are. They strip down life itself to the bare essentials of information and its replication. If the abundance of viruses is anything to go by, that is a very successful strategy indeed.

The world is teeming with them. One analysis of seawater found 200,000 different viral species, and it was not setting out to be comprehensive. Other research suggests that a single litre of seawater may contain more than 100bn virus particles, and a kilo of dried soil ten times that number. Altogether, according to calculations on the back of a very big envelope, the world might contain 1031 of the thingsthat is ten followed by 31 zeros, far outnumbering all other forms of life on the planet.

As far as anyone can tell, virusesoften of many different sortshave adapted to attack every organism that exists. One reason they are powerhouses of evolution is that they oversee a relentless and prodigious slaughter, mutating as they do so. This is particularly clear in the oceans, where a fifth of single-celled plankton are killed by viruses every day. Ecologically, this promotes diversity by scything down abundant species, thus making room for rarer ones. The more common an organism, the more likely it is that a local plague of viruses specialised to attack it will develop, and so keep it in check.

This propensity to cause plagues is also a powerful evolutionary stimulus for prey to develop defences, and these defences sometimes have wider consequences. For example, one explanation for why a cell may deliberately destroy itself is if its sacrifice lowers the viral load on closely related cells nearby. That way, its genes, copied in neighbouring cells, are more likely to survive. It so happens that such altruistic suicide is a prerequisite for cells to come together and form complex organisms, such as pea plants, mushrooms and human beings.

The other reason viruses are engines of evolution is that they are transport mechanisms for genetic information. Some viral genomes end up integrated into the cells of their hosts, where they can be passed down to those organisms descendants. Between 8% and 25% of the human genome seems to have such viral origins. But the viruses themselves can in turn be hijacked, and their genes turned to new uses. For example, the ability of mammals to bear live young is a consequence of a viral gene being modified to permit the formation of placentas. And even human brains may owe their development in part to the movement within them of virus-like elements that create genetic differences between neurons within a single organism.

Evolutions most enthralling insight is that breathtaking complexity can emerge from the sustained, implacable and nihilistic competition within and between organisms. The fact that the blind watchmaker has equipped you with the capacity to read and understand these words is in part a response to the actions of swarms of tiny, attacking replicators that have been going on, probably, since life first emerged on Earth around 4bn years ago. It is a startling example of that principle in actionand viruses have not finished yet.

Humanitys unique, virus-chiselled consciousness opens up new avenues to deal with the viral threat and to exploit it. This starts with the miracle of vaccination, which defends against a pathogenic attack before it is launched. Thanks to vaccines, smallpox is no more, having taken some 300m lives in the 20th century. Polio will one day surely follow. New research prompted by the covid-19 pandemic will enhance the power to examine the viral realm and the best responses to it that bodies can mustertaking the defence against viruses to a new level.

Another avenue for progress lies in the tools for manipulating organisms that will come from an understanding of viruses and the defences against them. Early versions of genetic engineering relied on restriction enzymesmolecular scissors with which bacteria cut up viral genes and which biotechnologists employ to move genes around. The latest iteration of biotechnology, gene editing letter by letter, which is known as CRISPR, makes use of a more precise antiviral mechanism.

The natural world is not kind. A virus-free existence is an impossibility so deeply unachievable that its desirability is meaningless. In any case, the marvellous diversity of life rests on viruses which, as much as they are a source of death, are also a source of richness and of change. Marvellous, too, is the prospect of a world where viruses become a source of new understanding for humansand kill fewer of them than ever before.

This article appeared in the Leaders section of the print edition under the headline "The aliens among us"

The rest is here:
How viruses shape the world - The Economist

Global CRISPR and CRISPR-Associated (Cas) Genes Market: Snapshot

Over the years, biomedical researchers have increasingly focused on developing efficient and reliable methods for precise and targeted changes to virtually any point of genome of any living cell. Recent advances in the genome engineering has triggered several biological researches and translational applications. Economical manipulation and modification of genomic sequences enable molecular biologists identify and characterize key genetic determinants to facilitate the investigation of various biological processes.

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Genome editing via clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated (Cas) is considered as an innovative technique in programmable and high-throughput functional genomics. CRISPR-Cas system consists of pattern of repetitive sequences in the DNA of certain bacteria, who used it as an adaptive immune system to find a protection mechanism against invading foreign DNA.

In less than a decade, a host of novel targeted techniques and genomic engineering tools have been developed that facilitates precise and diverse genomic modifications in a variety of organisms and tissues. The recent tool having enormous potential in biomedical researches is the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated Cas9/sgRNA system, also called Cas9/sgRNA. Cas9 protein is an RNA guided endonuclease. Along with its variants it has generated considerable excitement versatile genomic engineering tool in the development of genetically edited (GE) crops. Primary areas research for this include examining gene function, understanding the regulatory signaling networks, and rewiring sgRNA for advance loss-of-function screening. This will help in combating biotic and abiotic stresses, thereby leading to the development of climate resilient crops and sustainable agriculture practices in the coming years.

Global CRISPR and CRISPR-Associated (Cas) Genes Market: Overview

In the past few years research and development of CRISPR or clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats has allowed molecular biologists to designs solutions for repairing cells by genome editing. This method allows a change to a specific genome by the introduction of a new function or by correction of a mutation. The exceptional fidelity, simplicity of construction, and low cost has triggered a monumental demand for the several solutions offered by the global CRISPR and CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes market. The market is riding a wave of success as these factors have augmented the uptake of this method in several molecular biology laboratories.

The well-documented research report presents a fair case study of the global CRISPR and CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes market. The report includes a SWOT analysis and Porters five forces analysis, which help in understanding several facets of the global market in greater depth. Furthermore, analysts have used primary and secondary research methodologies, which ensure the authenticity of the facts. This information in the report has also been seconded by market experts with comments and recommendations about the subject matter. The comprehensive research report is aimed at guiding each of its readers to make well-informed business decisions.

Global CRISPR and CRISPR-Associated (Cas) Genes Market: Trends and Drivers

The products available in the global CRISPR and CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes market are DNA-free Cas and vector-based Cas. The widening applications of these are expected offer several lucrative opportunities to the global market. Out of various applications, genome engineering is expected to be a key contributor to the soaring revenue of the overall market in the near future. This trend will be attributable to eh increasing uptake of genome editing method for the therapeutic development and germline modifications. The report indicates that advancements in plant genome engineering will result in positive impact on the global market.

Analysts predict that CRISPR could be the next biotechnology treatment that has the ability to gradually replace the present single-antibody drugs. Genome engineering is anticipated to pick up a phenomenal pace in the coming years as it is being developed to build an immune response for targeting cancer. The widening application of these methods in the field of oncology is likely to change the game for the global market in the coming years.

Global CRISPR and CRISPR-Associated (Cas) Genes Market: Regional Outlook

In terms of geography, the global market is segmented into North America, Asia Pacific, Latin America, the Middle East and Africa, and Europe. North America is estimated to lead the global CRISPR and CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes market as the U.S. has shown a keen interest in developing effective therapeutics. Asia Pacific is also expected to offer several growth opportunities to the overall market as the region is facing a challenge of mounting unmet medical needs.

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Key Players Mentioned in the Report are:

The report has identified the following as the key operating players in the globalCRISPR and CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes market: Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., Caribou Biosciences, Inc., CRISPR THERAPEUTICS, Addgene, Mirus Bio LLC, Merck KGaA, Editas Medicine, GE Healthcare Dharmacon Inc., Takara Bio USA, Horizon Discovery Group plc, and Intellia Therapeutics, Inc.Analysts predict that these companies will focus on making strategic collaborations to ahead of the competition present in the overall market.

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TMR Research is a premier provider of customized market research and consulting services to business entities keen on succeeding in todays supercharged economic climate. Armed with an experienced, dedicated, and dynamic team of analysts, we are redefining the way our clients conduct business by providing them with authoritative and trusted research studies in tune with the latest methodologies and market trends.

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CRISPR and CRISPR-Associated (Cas) Genes Market Analysis Growth Opportunities and Trends by Forecast To 2025 - Scientect

For about a week this past September, I adopted a wellness routine thatat the timefelt like neurotic overkill. I didnt bother with masks or hand sanitizer; back then, the virus we now know as SARS-CoV-2 was still presumably nestled in the warm body of an unknown animal. Instead, each morning, I spritzed my arms and legs with picaridin, a chemical repellent meant to ward off parasitic bugs. Then I covered myself with one of several increasingly crusty sets of khaki pants and long-sleeved shirts that I had infused with the insecticide permethrin. Only then, force field up, would I venture outside.

I had come to Dakar, Senegal, to get closebut not too closeto Aedes aegypti, a globally invasive mosquito that is arguably the worst animal in the world. The species carries yellow fever and dengue, both of which can cause more severe disease in young adults than SARS-CoV-2; Zika virus, which can lead to birth defects; and chikungunya virus, which can leave victims with debilitating joint pain.

Unlike viruses that travel person-to-person, most of these pathogens can spread only in places where mosquitoes live. Then again, aegyptis range is immense. All told, her bitesand only females bitecause an estimated 400 million infections each year, which means that several dozen people have been infected in the time it took you to read this sentence. In 2019, when the World Health Organization compiled a list of threats to global health, dengue got a whole slot to itself. Zika showed up in another slot, sharing billing with Ebola, SARS, and disease X, the prospect of some then-unknown pathogen with epidemic potential.

In Senegal, my own illusion of invulnerability lasted until I met Mawlouth Diallo, a medical entomologist from the Pasteur Institute in Dakar. Wearing a matching blue kaftan set, he sat with me in my hotel lobby for more than an hour, earnestly explaining his teams mosquito research in smooth, French-accented English. Finally, I had to ask a nagging, basic question.

Sitting here, right here, I said, gesturing to the air-conditioned lobby, where is the nearest Aedes aegypti?

Diallo seemed confused at the question. Where?

Like, could we go find some of them outside right now?

No, it is inside, he said, then laughed out loud at the expression on my face. For sure, aegypti is inside the hotel. When dengue broke out in Dakar in 2009, the citys Lebanese population was hit the hardest. One reason, Diallo said, was that mosquitoes and wealthy foreigners are both drawn to luxury indoor environments. In this lobby, he said, the best place to find Aedes aegypti would be the flowerpots.

I laughed with him, albeit less easily. Of the 3,000-plus mosquito species alive, most are fairly harmless. Only a handful are a concern for public-health officials. But Aedes aegypti is different. Whether in Rio de Janeiro, New Delhi, or Miami-Dade County, it will breed in clean water supplies, it will come indoors, it will make a beeline toward human odor, and it will bite when the sun is up, circumventing bed nets that protect at night. Masks to prevent the spread of COVID-19 wont make a difference. Neither will staying at home, unless you live in a closed, air-conditioned house. No other mosquito is so perfectly suited to live with, and on, human beings.

The problem will get worse. Beyond the tropics and subtropics, the species has strongholds in Florida, Texas, California, and Arizona, and at least one population has managed to survive multiple winters in Washington, D.C. One recent study projected that by 2050, thanks to the climate crisis, the North American range of Aedes aegypti will extend to Chicago; in China, its range will go as far north as Shanghai.

In response, the world is readying an arsenal of shiny new biological tools. But as scientists and policy makers plan to subvert the species evolutionary future, its especially important to grapple with its origins, the kind of processes that begin long before once-obscure pathogens emerge from clear-cut rainforests or animal markets. In tropical Africa, especially Senegal, researchers are uncovering the shared history of aegypti and its favorite host, learning how environmental change, slavery, and colonialism turned a local mosquito into a global menace.

After chatting in the hotel lobby, Diallo agreed to find me some mosquitoes. Outdoors, we walked half a block and poked around a construction site, looking for standing water in buckets and concrete blocks before fending off a nervous manager. Then Diallo saw a tire leaning against a wall. Reaching inside with a discarded coffee cup, he scooped out a little waterin which he pointed out at least a dozen larvae.

Read: A new way to keep mosquitoes from biting

Cup in hand, Diallo hailed us a cab and negotiated a fare to the Pasteur Institute. In his lab, he led me into a room full of mesh cages of aegypti from all over the country. The mosquitoes looked, in my paranoid imagination, very eager to get out.

That afternoon, when I returned to my hotel, I walked over to the pool. I waited until nobody was watching, then bent to look into the wet, shaded basin under one of the large flowerpots. The shadows wriggled, and I recoiled. The next morning, despite all my defenses, I noticed the first bites on my arm.

Aedes aegypti, whatever else you want to say about it, is a good-looking animal. Entomologists have described it to me as elegant, quite attractive, and even beautiful. Photographs often show it perched delicately on pink skin, displaying long limbs with black-and-white jailbird stripes. That pretty pattern belies an ugly disposition; the name of its scientific genus is derived from the Greek for unpleasant.

Fair enough. But aegypti wasnt always unpleasant. Within the past few thousand years, somewhere in Senegal or farther down the continent in modern-day Angola, biologists suspect that aegypti took its first step toward world domination.

Early hints of this story surfaced in the 1960s, when medical entomologists in the Rabai region of Kenya saw the species breeding in earthenware pots of water and feasting on their human hosts. Every house theyd go into would just be teeming with these mosquitoes, says the Princeton evolutionary biologist Lindy McBride, who has revisited the same sites.

No surprise so far. This was the familiar, human-obsessed aegypti. But outside the Rabai houses, researchers spotted another form of aegypti. This variant laid its eggs in holes in the trunks of trees, not pots of water; it preferred to bite animals, not people. Yet it wasnt a new species. It was a trace of the ancestral aegypti, a relic of a more innocent time.

Scientists have since found undomesticated populations of the species across tropical Africa. They hope to understand not just how the domesticated form picked up its particularly nightmarish set of skills, but how other species might be bending the same way under the same forces. If we can understand where [aegypti] comes from and how it works, the hope is, we can figure out how to stop it, says Noah Rose, a postdoc in McBrides lab at Princeton.

Senegal, especially, might be the key. Starting in 2017, Rose went on a series of road trips across sub-Saharan African countries. In Senegal, Rose teamed up with the ecologist Massamba Sylla, who had already discovered something unique about the countrys mosquitoes.

After an hour-and-a-half-long cab ride inland from Dakar, during which I watched the scenery change from very dusty to extremely dusty, I met Sylla in a caf in the city of This. Over croissants and caf au lait, we flipped through photos from his expeditions on his laptop as he described his lifelong, wife-vexing passion for field entomology. Once it catches you, you put all your time into doing it, he said.

During his travels, Sylla discovered a pattern. Senegals climate ranges from desert in the northwest to tropical rainforest in the southeast; as these habitats blend into one another, so do the parasites. In dry cities on the coast such as Saint Louis and Dakar, Sylla and collaborators found only domesticated mosquitoes. But in towns in the far southeast, they collected almost exclusively undomesticated mosquitoes, breeding in tree holes or in the husks of fallen fruit. Between the two extremes, Sylla found a continuum of domesticated and undomesticated aegypti.

Read: No one knows exactly what would happen if mosquitoes were to disappear

When Rose came to the country in August of 2018, he and Sylla drove along the same gradient, from dry Dakar in the south to where the countryside flushes green and rivers block the roads. The trip was not without risk: A decade earlier, another American researcher working in the southeast with Sylla flew back home before developing flu-like symptomsZika, it turned out, which he then transmitted to his wife through sex.

This time, though, no one got sick, and the collection process they followed was alarmingly easy. They collected the eggs in oviposition traps lined with filter paper, upon which the eggs can survive dormant for months. Once back in New Jersey, Rose submerged the eggs in water; most hatched overnight. Youve suddenly just transferred a whole population of mosquitoes between continents, he told me, with almost no effort expended.

Rose tested mosquitoes from across the Senegal transect and other countries, imprisoning them in plexiglass cages and presenting them with two olfactory options. They could fly down a tube that led to his own arm, or down another that led to a hapless guinea pig. Screens shielded both Rose and the guinea pig from actual bites.

These tests, recently summarized in the study, show that places in northern Senegal near Dakar with severe dry seasons but crawling with people, who come with their own water supply host the most human-craving mosquitoes Rose harvested anywhere in Africa. But the country also contains the widest range of aegypti behaviors, from almost exclusive animal-biting in the southeast to exclusive human-biting in the northwest. This diversity suggests that Senegal could be where the transformation happened.

Scientists still dont know the specific reasons for the change. But heres one plausible scenario of aegypti evolution, described to me by the biologist Jeffrey Powell at Yale University. Imagine a city near or encroaching on the forest. The climate slides into a drought, and animals are scarce. But human communities still offer warm-blooded bodies to drink from and cisterns of clean water to lay eggs in, enough to support aegypti until the rains return. Now imagine aegypti, over several generations, adapting to this new, more reliable lifestyle.

Some 500 years ago, after our domesticated aegypti had evolved in dry coastal cities in Senegal, Angola, and elsewhere on the African continent, European ships arrived on the Atlantic coast and began to carry away human beings. As the global tragedy of slavery unfolded, aegypti unleashed itself on the wider world.

Dakar, a French- and Wolof-speaking city clogged with determined street vendors, honking cabs, and clomping horse-drawn carts, was once the administrative center of French West Africa. Now its Senegals capital. The larger metropolitan area, home to some 3 million people, is still trying to cram itself onto the Cape Verde peninsula, which curls out into the Atlantic from the westernmost point of Africa like an arm bent at the elbow.

When the Portuguese sailed into the peninsulas enclosed harbor in 1444, the city of Dakar did not exist. For societies living between the Senegal and Gambia Rivers, the Atlantic was a dead end. Trade came instead from the Muslim world to the east. But after Europeans arrived, the slave-trading outposts they built along the African coast began to exert their own gravity.

To meet the European demand for enslaved people, some societies launched massive manhunts against neighbors. Normal economies collapsed. Famines struck, leaving victims so hungry that they offered themselves up to enslavers. This predatory business, which reduced the producer to an export commodity, pushed Senegambian societies into a state of regression, writes the West African historian Boubacar Barry. Violence became the dominant motive force of their history.

At staging grounds such as Goree Island, enslavers conducted invasive physical examinations to screen out unhealthy people. After loading their captives on boats, though, they locked many inside the hold in rank, appalling conditions rather than risk having them revolt or jump overboard. Disease and death were rampant. For the crew and a profitable percentage of the captives to survive the two-to-four-month journey across the ocean, the ships also needed to carry dozens of water barrels. The concentrated humanity combined with the abundant standing water offered domesticated aegypti everything it needed to stow along.

Meanwhile, the same bottomless avarice that brought enslaved people and aegypti to the Caribbean had terraformed their destination. After uprooting indigenous populations, enslavers cleared large areas for sugarcane, then razed even more forest for the fuel they needed to reduce cane juice to crystals. Clearing the dense, moist stands, they assumed, would also eliminate the noxious miasmas that they believed to be the ultimate source of disease.

They were wrong. With forests gone, invasive species replaced insect-eating birds. Erosion caused flash floods. Loose sediments collected into marshland, creating new breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Native Anopheles mosquitoes ingested the malaria parasite from the blood of incoming West Africans and spread malaria throughout the islands. As for the arriving aegypti, it found the Caribbeans ports and sugar plantations teeming with human victims, standing water, and pure cane juicewhich the species will also drink in a pinch. By the 1640s, aegypti had made itself at home in the islands, and was quietly setting the stage for something worse.

Around this time, the yellow-fever virus must have also made the trip over from Africa, likely volleying between mosquitoes and infected enslaved people or sailors during the long voyage. Yellow fever wreaks special havoc on adult immune systems that have never encountered it before. First victims get flu-like fever and aches for a few days, then appear to recover. Typically this recovery sticks. Otherwise, they get sick again, this time with jaundicehence the yellowand start vomiting up blood, hence the diseases Spanish name, vomito negro.

An early outbreak hit Barbados in 1647, leaving 6,000 people dead before rippling through the rest of the Caribbean. Yellow fever then sloshed from port to port for centuries, borne on silent wings. Ships, ports, and cities formed an invisible circulatory system. In summertime, the yellow-fever virus could materialize far outside its normal rangeas in 1793, when one of Americas foundational disease outbreaks killed one in 10 Philadelphians and abated only once fall brought frost.

Read: Two ways of making malaria-proof mosquitoes

Here aegypti, itself shaped by history, began to shape history back. Once established in the Americas, as the historian J. R. McNeill argues in his 2010 book, Mosquito Empires, endemic malaria and especially yellow fever gave local populations an advantage against foreign powers, whose soldiers would show up to fight with less seasoned immune systems. All locals had to do was survive outright confrontationand wait. Yellow fever helped Spain defend its holdings against European competitors; malaria weakened British forces during the American Revolution. When Toussaint LOuverture fought to liberate Haiti, yellow fever may have been his staunchest ally.

The domesticated aegypti had established itself quickly across the Atlantic, altering the history of the Americas in the process. In 2018, Powell at Yale published a landmark study showing that mosquito genomes and epidemiological records reflected the historical timeline. The histories of the slave trade, the mosquito populations, and the disease outbreaks are all telling the same story, he said.

And then aegypti kept going. After ships crossed from Africa to the Americas, they headed back to Europe laden with goods such as sugar. Soon, a few mosquitoes likely hitched a ride on this leg of the trip too. In 1801, Spains queen consort, Maria Luisa de Parma, suffered from a disease she called dengue. Around then, aegypti was making itself comfortable in the Mediterranean, and would go on to cause outbreaks of yellow fever and dengue there for decades. When the Suez Canal opened in 1869, it offered the species a back way out of the Mediterranean into the Pacific. Before that centurys end, the first clear outbreaks of chikungunya and dengue had appeared in Asia.

Meanwhile, yellow fever kept burning through the tropics. Nobody even knew what carried it until the 1880s, when a Cuban doctor named Carlos Finlay made a then-preposterous proposal: Maybe mosquitoes caused these outbreaks. The U.S. Army pathologist Walter Reed proved Finlays theory in 1900, finally giving humans a chance to slow the spread of the disease by putting up screens and getting rid of standing water. Between then and now, though, the sun still hasnt set on aegyptis empire.

Yellow fever itself has been mostly brought to heel. The breakthrough came in 1928, when competing American, French, and English research teams across Africa convened in Dakar to discuss the tragic case of one Adrian Stokes.

After France had abolished slavery in Senegal, in 1848, the colonial government conquered inland states and set up peanut farms, devising new systems to profit from African labor that soon expanded into other colonies. Senegal was a laboratory for the European powers, says Mor Ndao, a historian of tropical medicine at Dakars Cheikh Anta Diop University.

Disease stood in their way. Yellow fever was an obstacle for the exploitation of the African continent, Ndao told me. Senegals coastal cities had long been gripped by their own yellow-fever outbreaks, which public officials and even scientists invoked to justify race- and class-based sanitary segregation long after the mosquito hypothesis had proved what really carried the disease. But the death of Stokes, an Irish pathologist, offered a new way forward.

Read: How the rise of cities helped mosquitoes thrive

The year before, in 1927, Stokes had contracted yellow fever while helping isolate the virus from the blood of a Ghanaian man named Asibi. The pathologist demanded that his colleagues draw his blood and let mosquitoes bite him. Injections of that blood and bites from those mosquitoes both caused fatal yellow-fever cases in monkeys, proving that the team really had captured the infectious substance itself. Stokes died four days after contracting the virus, and was buried in Lagos. He was the first author on the pivotal scientific paper.

Upon hearing of this success, the French team at the Pasteur Institute isolated their own strain from a local patient named Francois Mayali. After sharing their findings in the Dakar meeting, multiple groups of scientists started working on vaccines. Mass vaccination campaigns began in the following decades, pushing yellow fever and its bloodsucking vector out of mind and making the tropics less scary for Ndaos would-be exploiters. Today, virtually every yellow-fever vaccine, including the one I got before visiting Dakar, bears a hint of these colonial beginnings: They still use a watered-down version of the strain taken from Asibi.

With the worlds attention diverted, this win soured. During the past century, similar viruses emerged from forests in Africa and Asia. Reaching urban areas, they all found aegypti ready to ferry them from person to person. First came dengue, which leaked out into a bigger global problem as southeast Asia urbanized after World War II. Then in 2006, more than a million people in India may have caught chikungunya. This past decade, Zika emerged on a similar scale in the Americas. Even yellow feverstill the only aegypti-carried disease with a safe, publicly available vaccinehas staged a comeback: two African outbreaks in 2016.

All this, remember, wrought by what were once inoffensive forest insects.

Roses study projects that Africas milder, wilder populations of aegypti may crank up their own appetite for humans by 2050, as dense cities spring up across the continent. In response to that alarming forecast, a new collaboration of scientists from across the Sahel, the semiarid region south of the Sahara, is collecting more local eggsbut that research has gotten off to a slow start thanks to COVID-19 and extremist groups in the region, Rose says.

Perhaps a deeper worry is that thousands of other mosquito species out there have their own capacity to change. During the Second World War, when Londoners hid in the citys Underground tunnels to escape bombing during the Blitz, they were swarmed by a form of the mosquito Culex pipiens that had already adapted to the worlds oldest subway system. That same pest now haunts subterranean Manhattan. And just in the past four decades, Aedes albopictus, an aegypti cousin from Southeast Asia that carries many of the same diseases, has exploded its range through Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

Not to mention unknown others. We could be missing the tip of the iceberg here, says Scott Weaver, who directs the Institute for Human Infections and Immunity at the University of Texas. I think understanding aegypti, as a first step, will be very important.

As we approached the island, a crumbling stone fort with grass growing on top came into view, then a few buildings painted in fading pastels. Then a dock next to a small beach. The ferry engine kicked into reverse, sending a deep rumble through the deck.

This is Goree Island. Within sight of Dakar, its the kind of place where aegypti likely hitched a ride across the Atlantic. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the island is already steeped in the global memory of slavery. First established as a coastal base by the Portuguese, Goree was controlled by the Dutch, the British, and the French until Senegal achieved independence in 1960.

After disembarking and buying admission to Goree, I headed southeast, passing a massive baobab tree and a few lounging stray kittens on my way to a museum called the House of Slaves. Since the 1990s, historians have argued that Goree was a relatively minor location in the overall slave tradethat perhaps only 33,000 captive human beings came through the islandand that the role of this specific house might have been mostly symbolic.

But memory, once established, doesnt work that way. The three U.S. presidents before the current one came here, and when Nelson Mandela visited, the story is that he sat by himself for five minutes in a cramped chamber marked for recalcitrant captivesand then came out shaken, his eyes red.

After the entrance, visitors pass through a pink courtyard. The ground floor under the house is divided by stone walls into various dim holding chambers, each room labeled by the museum with a sign in French: women, children, the sick. Running your hand along the wall, you can feel the occasional seashell embedded in the stone.

Read: The quest to make a better mosquito repellent

Behind the house, visitors paused for selfies in the Door of No Return, an empty frame backlit by the sky and ocean. I waited my own turn. The conceit here is that anyone kept under this house and then led through that door never came back. Their world was forever altered. The wider world was also altered, both by the tragedy of slavery and by its still-unfolding consequences, among them 400 million annual infections.

For this insect problem, at least, fixes are in the works. By asking questions about where aegypti came from, scientists such as Diallo and Sylla in Senegal and their overseas colleagues hope to save lives too. Understanding aegyptis evolution on its home turf might also help us anticipate and counter copycat trends in other mosquitoes or disease-vector species. And unravelling why aegypti and its viruses are so good at parasitizing us could also help us fight them.

For example, if McBride can pinpoint the genes and neurological systems that control the domesticated aegyptis fixation on people, hijacking that system to find new chemical repellents could be easier. So would crafting new kinds of bait, which would manipulate aegypti to avoid populated areas and head elsewhere. We might be able to design a super-stimulus that would be more attractive than humans, that would pull them into traps, she says.

But the limiting factors in 2020 are focus and funding, especially with another virus falling on the world like an anvil. Im optimistic that people are finally understanding we cant continue this boom and bust funding cycle, Weaver says, where a new outbreak occurs and we put a lot of resources into that viruswhether it be chikungunya, or Zika, now SARS-CoV-2and we do that by taking away resources from other diseases.

For now, though, public-health systems across the Global South have also been diverted to coronavirus work, scientists say, leaving papers unpublished and mosquitoes uncollected. And whereas vaccines for Zika and chikungunya have been in development for many years, the fact that the outbreaks of those diseases are unpredictable and their victims clustered in poorer countriesunlike those of the more widespread COVID-19means that the vaccines are difficult to test and less lucrative for the pharmaceutical industry, and thus still havent made it to market.

As for engineering options to target the mosquitoes themselves, new technologies are already out in the world, aiming to reshape this little critter at the nexus of so much suffering.

One option is a bacterium called Wolbachia, bred into laboratory aegypti and then into wild populations. A greedy pathogen itself, the bacteria competes with the viruses that want to piggyback on the mosquitos life cycle. Tested in Indonesia, Malaysia, and even in Fresno, California, it reduces the mosquitos ability to spread disease.

An even more formidable option might be the gene drive, a type of genetic modification that would spread altered genes from a few sterile or disease-free mosquitoes throughout entire wild populations. The method is undergoing preliminary testing in Burkina Faso and elsewhere, and aegypti is high on the list of potential targets.

Meanwhile, less fancy kinds of genetically altered aegypti are already out in the wild. From 2013 to 2015, for example, one mosquito-control program released millions of modified male mosquitoes designed by a British company called Oxitec in the city of Jacobina, Brazil. The idea was that when they mated with wild females, the resulting offspring would die in infancy, causing populations to plummetwhich they did.

Apparently, though, not all those doomed offspring actually died. Some found a way to live and breed, passing on little bits of themselves. As Powell and other researchers pointed out in an eyebrow-raising study this past September, the wild aegypti population near Jacobina now contains a sprinkling of mosquito genes from Mexico and Cuba, where the Oxitec mosquitoes ancestors were harvested.

This crossbreeding might have actually strengthened the Jacobina aegypti, the study suggestedsparking a media firestorm, a fierce response from Oxitec, and concern from several of Powells Brazilian co-authors. I thought I was pretty conservative, Powell said, but it seems like that got blown out of hand. This summer, both the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the state of Florida granted Oxitec permits to begin releasing a version of the same technology in the Florida Keys, although there are still regulatory hurdles to clear.

As we continue to influence its evolution, aegypti, as it always does, is beginning to respond. Standing on Goree Island, though, I didnt think much about the wizardry of all these fixes in the works, or the engineering required, or the consideration of known and unknown consequences. Instead, I took a moment to dwell on what has already happened.

And maybe with this past in mind, or maybe because of a simpler superstition, I didnt walk through the threshold of the Door of No Return when I got to it. I just stood there, blinking in the light, looking out at the turquoise waves.

Ousmane Balde contributed reporting.

See the rest here:
The Worst Animal in the World - The Atlantic

I know a stiff wind. They call this place Storm Lake, after all. But until recently most Iowans had never heard of a derecho. They have now. Last Monday, a derecho tore 770 miles from Nebraska to Indiana and left a path of destruction up to 50 miles wide over 10m acres of prime cropland. It blew 113 miles per hour at the Quad Cities on the Mississippi River.

Grain bins were crumpled like aluminum foil. Three hundred thousand people remained without power in Iowa and Illinois on Friday. Cedar Rapids andIowaCity were devastated.

The corn lay flat.

Iowas maize yield may be cut in half. A little napkin ciphering tells me the Tall Corn State will lose $6bn from crop damage alone.

We should get used to it. Extreme weather is the new normal. Last year, the villages of Hamburg and Pacific Junction, Iowa, were washed down the Missouri River from epic floods that scoured tens of thousands of acres. This year, the Great Plains are burning up from drought. Western Iowa was steeped in severe drought when those straight-line winds barreled through the weak stalks.

A multi-decade drought is under way in the Central Plains and the south-west. Wildfires are spreading from Arizona to California, and are burning ridges north of Los Angeles not licked by flames since 1968. Cattle in huge Kansas, Texas and Oklahoma feedlots will drink the Ogallala Aquifer dry in 20 years. This drought, which could rival or exceed the Medieval Drought that occurred about AD1200, could last 30 to 50 years, according to research from the Goddard Space Institute. It will become difficult to grow corn in southern Iowa, and impossible in western Kansas. By mid-century, corn yields could decline by 30%, according to the Iowa State University climatologist Dr Gene Takle.

Takle notes that the 20th century was the wettest on record. This could be the driest.

The last century was our Goldilocks period, Takle said. Just right. And that period is coming to an end.

We have cyclone bombs in winter and derechos on top of tornadoes. We have 500-year floods every 10 years. And we have a steady increase in night-time temperatures and humidity that makes it difficult for the corn to breathe even with the latest in genetic engineering. Protein content in the kernel is falling. Livestock and plants fall prey to new diseases and pests along with extreme heat stress.

It will lead to a reckoning more quickly than most of us realize.

The pandemic exposed the fragility of the food supply when meat processing plants teetered last spring for lack of healthy workers. Prices shot up 50% at the grocery counter.

Farmers didnt share in that windfall. Corn prices are at a 10-year low in a broken industrial system propped up by government design.

When Takle was a teenager, baling hay in 1960, there were 18-20 days a year when the temperature would get above 90 degrees. By the end of the century, Takle warns, this region could be scorched by temperatures over 100 degrees 50 to 60 days a year.

Soil that can hold water and defy heat is losing that capacity to erosion driven by extreme rains. Poor soil, combined with the extreme heat Takle describes, assures crop failures. Takle said corn crops could fail every other year if we go on with business as usual pumping out carbon.

Its already happening in Latin America. Decades of drought are driving Guatemalan campesino refugees to Storm Lake to work in meatpacking. Similarly, epic migrations were driven by the Medieval Drought. It is believed that the Mill Creek people who settled here were driven north up the Missouri River to the Dakotas as they were droughted out of Iowa. That drought also led to wars in Europe, not unlike the contemporary conflicts and migrations in Africa whose roots are in failing agricultural and food systems.

The impacts of climate change are real and profound for our most basic industry: food. Fortunately, sound science tells us that we can make a real impact on climate change by planting less corn and more grass that sequesters carbon. Paying farmers to build soil health and retain water is a better investment than writing a crop insurance check for drought. Farmers on the frontlines of climate change are trying to become more resilient to extreme weather by planting permanent grass strips in crop fields, and planting cover crops for the winter that suck up nitrogen and CO2. The rate of adaptation would be quickened if conservation funding programs were not always under attack.

The derecho is yet another destructive reminder that heat leading to extreme storms will destroy our very food sources if we dont face the climate crisis now.

Teaser photo credit: National Weather Service (Quad Cities Office) https://www.weather.gov/dvn/summary_081020 Author: Glenn Rushworth

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Extreme Weather Just Devastated 10m Acres in the Midwest. Expect More of This - Resilience

Gene drives may be invaluable tools to control the spread of parasites, invasive species, and disease carriers. But the technology has faced strong opposition from activist groups and some mainstream scientists based on environmental and food safety. Are these concerns valid?

On June 30, some 80 environmental organizations, led by Greenpeace EU, Friends of the Earth Europe and Save Our Seeds, signed an open letter to the European Commission asking for support for a global moratorium on gene drive technology. The advocacy groups claimed that the release of gene drives poses serious and novel threats to biodiversity and the environment at an unprecedented scale and depth.

Citing a report by the European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER), the coalition wrote:

in light of the unpredictabilities, the lack of knowledge and the potentially severe negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, any releases (including experimental) of Gene Drive Organisms into the environment be placed on hold to allow proper investigation until there is sufficient knowledge and understanding.

The environmental claims were unsupported by any documents other than the report by ENSSER, a controversial group of anti-biotechnology activist scientists co-founded by Gilles-ricSralini, best known for his retracted and discredited 2012 paper linking GMOs to cancer in rats.

The European parliament has already supported such a moratorium, an act that echoes EUs precautionary approach to genetic engineering, transgenic organisms and gene editing. The EU stated reasons include:

Recent advances in genetics and synthetic biology, particularly the development of CRISPR gene editing tools, have given scientists a powerful way to address problems created by pests, from mosquitoes to rodents, that vector disease to humans. In classical genetics, genes that offer adaptation benefits to individuals tend to increase their occurrence in the population while genes that reduce fitness tend to disappear.

Gene drives are genetic sequences designed to spread strongly and become present in every individual of a targeted species after a few generations. The genes may offer benefits, be neutral for adaptation purposes, or hinder their carriers survival and reproduction potential.Generation after generation, it would relentlessly copy and paste the gene it carried, until the gene and the desired trait was present in every descendant.Because the spread of a trait happens over generations, a gene drive works best in species that reproduce quickly, like insects and rodents

Gene drives are the first genetic constructs that can theoretically affect a population in its entirety, and quickly. It could even lead to the extinction of entire species, as gene drive critics allege. Species extinction has been part of life and evolution for all of Earths history. Although the data are fuzzy and contested, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity concluded that 150-200 plant, insect bird, and mammal species go extinct every day.

The likelihood that a gene drive will destroy a species in part or in whole, such as the infectedAedes aegyptimosquito species that carries the Zika, dengue and chingunya viruses and offers no known environmental benefits, is nonetheless daunting to some. On the one hand, gene drives could be used to eradicate disease such as malaria and yellow fever by controlling the mosquitoes that transmit them. On the other hand, critics fear that the technology will open a Pandoras Box; removing a species that theoretically could resultin what is popularly and controversially known as the butterfly effect.

As imagined by MIT meteorologist Edward Lorenz 60 years ago, a tiny environmental changesay an extinction of a pestcould dramatically and unpredictably result in unpredictable or even catastrophic consequences (Lorenz imagined abutterflyflapping its wings and causing a typhoon).

In the last few years, various groups have called for a global moratorium on gene drives. Such attempts were resisted at the 2016 and 2018 United Nations Conventions on Biological Diversity, mainly due to the strong opposition of many scientists and sub-Saharan African nations hardest hit by disease-vectored pests. Nevertheless, gene drive opponents have gained traction and gene drive research and applications face significant regulatory obstacles across the world (see Genetic Literacys Global Gene Editing Regulation tracker for a country-by-country analysis).

What does the scientific evidence say about gene drives and their environmental consequences?

There are over 3,000 mosquito species, likely a fraction of the number of species that have existed over some 100 million years. A handful of these (Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex species) are disease vectors and transmit infections such as malaria, yellow fever, the West Nile virus, Zika, and dengue fever. Mosquito-borne disease account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases and cause more than 700,000 deaths every year. These mosquitoes are mostly invasive in their ecological distributions.

Ultimately, there seem to be few things that mosquitoes do that other organisms cant do just as wellexcept perhaps for one, reported Nature magazine ina 2010 article A World Without Mosquitoes.

They are lethally efficient at sucking blood from one individual and mainlining it into another, providing an ideal route for the spread of pathogenic microbes. The Nature article concluded that wiping out mosquitoes wouldnt be a badthing. In fact, they could restore rather than harm the ecosystem. The same can be inferred for most parasitic insects, which are specialized to a particular host and normally dont have an extended ecological interactions network.

Invasive species also cause significant environmental hazards. Cane toads, having no natural predators, are slowly taking over the Australian continent from the northeast. Invasive fish from the red sea are wrecking havoc in the Mediterranean marine ecosystems. Rodents have spread in every conceivable corner of the earth, displacing vulnerable local fauna.

Gene drives might be one of the only ways to contain their spread, protecting biodiversity. They can be a powerful conservation tool that targets only the organism of interest, unlike contemporary pest management techniques such as the use of insecticides that attack all insects indiscriminately, or introduction of natural predators from other ecosystems (that by default disturb the food chains and interactions network).

It is possible for a DNA sequence to jump from one species to the other through a process called horizontal gene transfer. This theoretically could happen between insects, which appears to lend support to the argument that there is at least a small chance for a gene drive to move from species to species with unforeseen consequences.

The truth is that gene drives can be designed to target a very specific area of the genome, unique for a species. The modern gene drives use the precise CRISPR base editing technologies to spread to the population. In the off chance that the DNA encoding the gene drive will enter the reproductive cells of an individual from the other species, the editing system will have no template to act upon and the gene will be lost. One may argue that CRISPR has a chance for off-target activity, but a gene drive needs maximum efficiency to act as a gene drive. If the CRISPR doesnt work at 100%, the DNA sequence will be subject to the typical laws of inheritance and will disappear from the genetic pool

The ability to introduce genetic information to a wild population, which will spread to every individual, is unfortunately a dual use technology. The technology can theoretically be exploited to make biological weapons, though theres no indication that such a weapon is or has been developed. As gene drives can work well across many generations and require a large amount of offspring, they are unable to directly harm humans, crops, and farm animals. But a gene drive could be used to enhance the fitness of a crop-eating insect or a disease-carrying rodent.

The solution to this potential hazard is more research (and definitely not a research moratorium). Anyone with the means (which are considerable, so no lone bioterrorists or rogue scientists) and intent to cause harm can already research into such applications and will ignore aUN-imposed technology ban. The research community needs to develop the means to detect and monitor any malicious gene drive release and counter any offensive use.

The question on who and how should approve gene drive projects isnt easy to answer. A gene drive isnt contained by country borders, and the outdated GMO regulation framework existing in most countries is scientifically outdated and practically inadequate to handle such applications.

Moreover, the technology cannot be monopolized by a few countries or private companies. Each project is different. The approval should be a result of consensus among numerous stakeholders. There should also be a defined way to monitor how the gene drive spreads and how to handle liability claims if there are negative effects.

With populism growing and fewer people willing to trust the judgment of regulators and scientists, the rhetoric around complex innovations has become increasingly polarized, with both sides stuck fighting a high-stakes battle for public opinion. The issue is complex, and any decisions cannot be left to scientists, state organizations, and companies alone. But it also cannot be left solely in the hands of environmental organizations with little or no understanding of the science and with an ideological agenda that doesnt necessarily serve the public.

Environmental groups have often resorted to hyperbole as the debate over gene drives has unfolded. At the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt, in 2018, a coalition of activists compared gene drives to the atomic bomb and accused researchers of using malaria as a Trojan horse to cover up the development of agricultural gene drives for corporate profit.A handful of small NGOs in the US, collectively known as SynBioWatch, have taken to describing gene-drive researchers as a cabal. The Canadian anti-biotechnology organization ETC Group claims aggressively spreads misinformation on social media, including claims that gene-drive honeybees could supposedly be controlled with a beam of light.

Meanwhile, Florida Keys is experiencing the largest dengue fever outbreak in a decade, with close to 40 cases already documented. The outbreak has led the Florida Keys Mosquito Control District to enter a partnership with UK-based, US-owned Oxitec that could lead to the Keys becoming the first U.S. trial site for genetically modified Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.

With a technology that can prevent hundreds of thousands of deaths per year, it is unethical to peremptorily ban it because it doesnt fit a few peoples worldview of what is natural. One may argue that governments and regulators should have no say whether one species should go extinct or not. But one can also question why activist groups in North America or Europe should be able to insert themselves in life and death decisions, preventing initiatives across the globe that could save millions of lives and protect our populations health and crops, and promote biological diversity.

Kostas Vavitsas, PhD, is a Senior Research Associate at the University of Athens, Greece. He is also a steering committee member of EUSynBioS. Follow him on Twitter@konvavitsas

Read more:
Viewpoint: Is there a scientific basis to ban gene drive technology that can rid us of virus-carrying rodents and mosquitoes? - Genetic Literacy...

If you were to stack up all the electronic waste produced annually around the world it would weigh as much as all the commercial aircrafts ever produced, or 5,000 Eiffel towers. This is a growing tsunami according to the UN, and its fed by all the phones, tablets and other electronic devices that are thrown away each day.

Of the 44.7 million metric tonnes of electronic waste (often shortened to e-waste) produced around the world in 2017, 90% was sent to landfill, incinerated, or illegally traded. Europe and the US accounted for almost half of this the EU is predicted to produce 12 million tonnes in 2020 alone. If nothing is done to combat the problem, the world is expected to produce more than 120 million tonnes annually by 2050.

Rich countries in Europe and North America export much of their e-waste to developing countries in Africa and Asia. A lot of this ends up accumulating in landfills, where toxic metals leach out and enter groundwater and food chains, threatening human health and the environment.

As daunting as this problem seems, were working on a solution. Using a process called bioleaching, were extracting and recycling these metals from e-waste using non-toxic bacteria.

Read more: Global electronic waste up 21% in five years, and recycling isn't keeping up

It might surprise you to learn that those toxic metals are actually very valuable. Its a bitter irony that the e-waste mountains collecting in the worlds poorest places actually contain a fortune. Precious metals are found in your phone and computer, and each year US$21 billion worth of gold and silver are used to manufacture new electronic devices. E-waste is thought to contain 7% of the worlds gold, and could be used to manufacture new products if it could be recycled safely.

With an estimated worth of US$62.5 billion a year, the economic benefits of recycling e-waste are clear. And it would help meet the shortfall for new natural resources that are needed to manufacture new products. Some of the elements on a printed circuit board essentially the brain of a computer are raw materials whose supply is at risk.

Other elements found in electronics are considered some of the periodic tables most endangered. There is a serious threat that they will be depleted within the next century. With todays trends of natural resource use, natural sources of indium will be depleted in about 10 years, platinum in 15 years and silver in 20 years.

But recovering these materials is more difficult than you might imagine.

Pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy are the current technologies used for extracting and recycling e-waste metals. They involve high temperatures and toxic chemicals, and so are extremely harmful to the environment. They require lots of energy and produce large volumes of toxic gas too, creating more pollution and leaving a large carbon footprint.

But bioleaching has existed as a solution to these problems as far back as the era of the Roman Empire. The modern mining industry has relied on it for decades, using microbes mainly bacteria, but also some fungi to extract metals from ores.

Microorganisms chemically modify the metal, setting it free from the surrounding rock and allowing it to dissolve in a microbial soup, from which the metal can be isolated and purified. Bioleaching requires very little energy and so has a small carbon footprint. No toxic chemicals are used either, making it environmentally friendly and safe.

Despite how useful it is, applying bioleaching to e-waste has mostly been an academic pursuit. But our research group is leading the first industrial effort. In a recent study, we reported how we managed to extract copper from discarded computer circuit boards using this method and recycle it into high-quality foil.

Different metals have different properties, so new methods must be constantly developed. Extracting metals by bioleaching, though pollution-free, is also slower than the traditional methods. Thankfully though, genetic engineering has already shown that we can improve how efficiently these microbes can be used in green recycling.

After our success recycling metals from discarded computers, scientists are trying other types of e-waste, including electric batteries. But developing better recycling techniques is only one piece of the puzzle. For a completely circular economy, recycling should start with manufacturers and producers. Designing devices that are more easily recycled and tackling the throw-away culture that treats the growing problem with indifference are both equally vital in slowing the oncoming tsunami.

See the original post here:
We're using microbes to clean up toxic electronic waste here's how - The Conversation UK

Latest Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant Market report evaluates the impact of Covid-19 outbreak on the industry, involving potential opportunity and challenges, drivers and risks and market growth forecast based on different scenario. GlobalPlant Breeding and CRISPR Plant industryMarket Report is a professional and in-depth research report on the worlds major regional market.

Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant market report provides a detailed analysis of global market size, regional and country-level market size, segmentation market growth, market share, competitive Landscape, sales analysis, the impact of domestic and global market players, value chain optimization, trade regulations, recent developments, opportunities analysis, strategic market growth analysis, product launches, area marketplace expanding, and technological innovations.

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Top Players Listed in the Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant Market Report are Syngenta, KWS, DowDuPont, Eurofins, SGS

Market Segmentations:Global Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant market competition by top manufacturers, with production, price, revenue (value) and market share for each manufacturer.

Based on type, report split into Molecular Breeding, Hybrid Breeding, Genome Editing, Genetic Engineering, Conventional Breeding

Based on the end users/applications, this report focuses on the status and outlook for major applications/end users, consumption (sales), market share and growth rate for each application, including Oilseeds & Pulses, Cereals & Grains, Fruits & Vegetables, Others

Impact of Covid-19 on Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant Industry 2020

Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant Market report analyses the impact of Coronavirus (COVID-19) on the Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant industry. Since the COVID-19 virus outbreak in December 2019, the disease has spread to almost 180+ countries around the globe with the World Health Organization declaring it a public health emergency. The global impacts of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are already starting to be felt, and will significantly affect the Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant market in 2020.

The outbreak of COVID-19 has brought effects on many aspects,like massive slowing of the supply chain; stock market unpredictability; falling business assurance, growing panic among the population, and uncertainty about future.

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The report introduces Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant basic information including definition, classification, application, industry chain structure, industry overview, policy analysis, and news analysis. Insightful predictions for the Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant Market for the coming few years have also been included in the report.

In the end, Plant Breeding and CRISPR Plant report provides details of competitive developments such as expansions, agreements, new product launches, and acquisitions in the market for forecasting, regional demand, and supply factor, investment, market dynamics including technical scenario, consumer behavior, and end-use industry trends and dynamics, capacity, spending were taken into consideration.

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With well-established regional markets such as North America and Europe presenting grim to moderate growth opportunities, emerging regions with an increased appetite for processed and packaged foods, confectionaries, and biopharmaceutical products can prove to be the most promising targets for companies in theglobal microbial fermentation technology market, observes Transparency Market Research in a recent report. Companies can benefit from the rising set of opportunities in emerging economies such as China, Brazil, and India that have billions of potential consumers seeking a diverse range of microbial fermented products to choose from.

Read Report Overview - https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/microbial-fermentation-technology-market.html

Therefore, focus on expanding businesses to cater to the rising demand for various food, feed, biosimilar products, and alcoholic beverages in these regions can prove to be an excellent growth strategy for players wanting to make it big in the global microbial fermentation technology market in the near future. Some of the leading companies in the market are Biocon, Lonza, Danone Ltd., Amyris, United Breweries Ltd., Novozymes, TerraVia Holdings, Inc., F. Hoffmann La-Roche Ltd., and BioVectra, DSM.

According to the report, the global microbial fermentation technology market was valued at US$1,493.8 bn in 2016 and is projected to expand at a CAGR of 5.7% from 2017 to 2025 to rise to a valuation of US$2,447.5 bn in 2025.

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Asia Pacific Region to remain a key Consumer of Microbial Fermentation Technologies

Geographically, the market in Asia Pacific dominated with nearly 40% share in the global market in 2016. Growth of the regional market can be attributed to the vast rise in geriatric population, a well-established chemical industry in China, cutting-edge research in the field of biotechnology and health care, and changing lifestyles in developing nations. The thriving nutraceuticals market in India is also likely to fuel the microbial fermentation technology market in Asia Pacific.

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In terms of product type, the segment of alcoholic beverages accounted for the dominant share in the overall market in 2016 and the trend is likely to remain strong over the forecast period as well, thanks to the expanding urban population and the rising popularity of alcohol among the young population of the globe.

Increased Usage of Microbial Fermentation in Biotechnology to Help Market Pick Pace

Fermentation technology has remained a highly favored biological process across a number of industrial applications for many decades due to low cost, high specificity, simplicity of reaction, and usage in versatile applications. While microbial fermentation has been used traditionally for preservation of foods only, it has seen a vast rise in application in the past few years owing to promising outcomes and the possibility of development of various bioprocess and products with its help.

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Modern industry has complemented the basic principle of fermentation technology with advances in genetic engineering by extending applications to produce a vast range products in the biotechnology sector, including biofuels, biochemicals, biopharmaceuticals, biosimilars, and biomolecules. Moreover, rising petrol prices and depleting reserves of fossil fuels have diversified applications of microbial fermentation process in the chemical sector to provide products such as alcohols, enzymes, organic acids, amino acids, vitamins, alkaloids, and Xanthan. The rising global demand for these products is likely to play a key role in helping the global microbial fermentation market expand at a promising pace in the next few years.

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This analysis of the global microbial fermentation market is based on a recent market research report by Transparency Market Research, titled Microbial Fermentation Technology Market (Product Type - Medical (Antibiotics, Probiotics, Monoclonal Antibodies, Recombinant Proteins, and Biosimilars), Industrial (Acetone, Ethanol and Butanol, Enzymes, and Amino Acids), Alcohol Beverages (Beer, Spirits, and Wine) and Food and Feed Products); End User - Bio-Pharmaceutical Industries, Food and Feed Industry, Contract Research Organizations (CROs) and Contract Manufacturing Organizations (CMOs), and Academic Research Institutes) - Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends, and Forecast, 20172025.

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Pune, Aug. 18, 2020 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- The global recombinant vaccines market size is expected to reach USD 25.32 billion by 2027, exhibiting a CAGR of 11.3% between 2019 to 2027. The introduction of innovative recombinant vaccines owing to the incidence of several infectious viruses such as coronavirus and hepatitis B will uplift the market potential during the forecast period, states Fortune Business Insights, in a report, titled Recombinant Vaccines Market Size, Share & COVID-19 Impact Analysis, By Type (Subunit and Live Attenuated), By Route of Administration (Parenteral and Oral), By Disease Indication (Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Hepatitis B, Rotavirus, Herpes Zoster, Meningococcal B, and Others), By Distribution Channel (Hospital & Retail Pharmacies, Government Suppliers and Others) and Geography Forecast, 2020-2027. The market size stood at USD 10.82 billion in 2019.

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The report recombinant vaccines market comprises:

Market Driver:

Development of Novel Vaccines by Significant Players to Augment Growth

The growing prevalence of diseases and viruses has led to huge investments in R&D for the development of innovative drugs and vaccines. The production of vaccines in larger quantities to relieve the population and prevent the risk of vaccine unavailability. The rising focus of key players towards advanced DNA technology, genomics, and other biotechnology techniques can further enhance the production and thus, benefit the market effectively.

Furthermore, the stellar sales of novel products will subsequently boost the growth of the market. For instance, Mercks Gardasil sales sprouted to US$ 3.7 billion in 2019 from US$ 1.7 billion in 2014. The vast majority of the population affected by Hepatitis B is predicted to be an essential factor in promoting the expansion of the market. As per the Hepatitis B Foundation, every year 30 million people are infected by the hepatitis B virus. Besides, the rising government initiatives and immunization programs will certainly create opportunities for the market in the forthcoming years.

The coronavirus emergency has given immense loss to industries and sectors across the globe. The governments of several countries have instigated lockdown to thwart the spread of this deadly virus. Such plans have caused disturbances in the production and supply chain. But, with time and resolution, we will be able to combat this stern time and get back to normality. Our well-revised reports will help companies to receive in-depth information about the present scenario of every market so that you can adopt the necessary strategies accordingly.

To get to know more about the short-term and long-term impacts of COVID-19 on this market,

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Heavy Demand for Vaccines to Escalate Business During Coronavirus

The growing demand for immunization drugs and vaccines due to the extensive spread of the disease amid coronavirus will improve the prospects of the market. The enormous R&D spending by industry players to develop recombinant COVID-19 vaccine will enable speedy expansion of the market in the forthcoming years. For instance, Novavax, a pipeline candidate NVX-CoV2373 is in the phase-1 clinical study against COVID-19. The ongoing clinal trials by pharmaceutical giants for the introduction of an effective COVID vaccine will accelerate the market revenue in the foreseeable future.

Regional Analysis:

Rapid Adoption of Effective Vaccines to Propel Market in North America

The market in North America stood at USD 4.97 billion in 2019 and is expected to rise excellently during the forecast period. The growth in the region is attributed to growing R&D investments by eminent players. The rapid adoption of efficient recombinant vaccines in the US. The increasing accessibility of advanced molecular & genetic engineering instruments is likely to improve the prospects of the market. Asia Pacific is expected to expand rapidly during the forecast period due to the immunization programs by governments.

The increasing demand for effective vaccines is likely to support the development of the market. The rising cases of human papillomavirus disease and hepatitis B are expected to spur opportunities for the market in the foreseeable future. According to the HPV Information Center in 2019, 106,430 annual incidences of human papillomavirus was recorded in China alone. The growing need for vaccine supply can be a crucial factor bolstering the growth of the market in Asia Pacific.

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Important Development:

April 2020: AstraZeneca announced that it has collaborated with the University of Oxford for the development and distribution of recombinant adenovirus vaccine indicated against COVID-19 infection.

List of the Leading Companies Operating in the Recombinant Vaccines Market are:

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Vaccines Market Share & Industry Analysis, By Type (Recombinant/Conjugate/Subunit, Inactivated, Live Attenuated and Toxoid), By Route of Administration (Parenteral and Oral), By Disease Indication (Viral Diseases and Bacterial Diseases), By Age Group (Pediatric and Adults), By Distribution Channel (Hospital & Retail Pharmacies, Government Suppliers and Others) and Region Forecast, 2019-2026

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccines Market Share & Industry Analysis, By Type (Bivalent and Polyvalent), By Disease Indication (HPV Associated Cancer and Genital Warts), By Distribution Channel (Hospital & Retail Pharmacies, Government Suppliers, and Others) and Geography Forecast, 2019-2026

Influenza Vaccine Market Share & Industry Analysis, By Type (Inactivated and Live Attenuated), By Valency (Quadrivalent and Trivalent), By Age Group (Pediatric and Adults), By Distribution Channel (Hospital & Retail Pharmacies, Government Suppliers and Others) and Geography Forecast, 2019-2026

Pediatric Drugs and Vaccines Market Share and Global Trend By Product (Vaccines, Drugs) By Disease Indication (Infectious Disease, Cancer, Allergy And Respiratory, Nervous System Disorders, Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, Others), By Distribution Channel (Hospital Pharmacies, Retail Pharmacies, Online Pharmacies) and Geography Forecast till 2026

Recombinant DNA Technology Market Share and Global Trend By Product (Vaccines, Therapeutic Agents, Recombinant Protein, Others), By Component (Vectors, Expression System, Others), By Application (Diagnostics, Therapeutic, Food and Agriculture, Others), By End User (Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Companies, Diagnostic Laboratories, Academic and Government Research Institutes, Other) and Geography Forecast till 2026

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Recombinant Vaccines Market to Reach USD 25.32 Billion by 2027; Increasing Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus Disease to Brighten Business Prospects,...

Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market

Los Angeles, United State,- This research study is one of the most detailed and accurate ones that solely focus on the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market. It sheds light on critical factors that impact the growth of the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market on several fronts. Market participants can use the report to gain a sound understanding of the competitive landscape and strategies adopted by leading players of the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market. The authors of the report segment the globalZinc Finger Nuclease Technologymarket according to a type of product, application, and region. The segments studied in the report are analyzed on the basis of market share, consumption, production, market attractiveness, and other vital factors.

The geographical analysis of the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market provided in the research study is an intelligent tool that interested parties can use to identify lucrative regional markets. It helps readers to become aware of the characteristics of different regional markets and how they are progressing in terms of growth. The report also offers a deep analysis of Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market dynamics, including drivers, challenges, restraints, trends and opportunities, and market influence factors. It provides a statistical analysis of the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market, which includes CAGR, revenue, volume, market shares, and other important figures. On the whole, it comes out as a complete package of various market intelligence studies focusing on the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market.

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Company Profiles: It is a very important section of the report that includes accurate and deep profiling of leading players of the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market. It provides information about the main business, markets served, gross margin, revenue, price, production, and other factors that define the market progress of players studied in the Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology report.

Major Players Cited in the Report

, Sigma-Aldrich, Sangamo Therapeutics, Labomics, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gilead, Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology

Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size Estimation

In order to estimate and validate the size of the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market, our researchers used bottom-up as well as top-down approaches. These methods were also used to project the Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market size of segments and sub-segments included in the report.

We used secondary sources to determine all breakdowns, splits, and percentage shares and completed their verification with the help of primary sources. We used both primary and secondary research processes to estimate the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market size vis--vis value and analyze the supply chain of the industry. In addition, extensive secondary research was conducted to identify key players in the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market.

Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market by Product

, Cell Line Engineering, Animal Genetic Engineering, Plant Genetic Engineering, Other Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology

Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market by Application

, Biotechnology Companies, Pharmaceutical Companies, Hospital Laboratory and Diagnostic Laboratory, Academic and Research Institutes, Others

Report Objectives

Tracking and analyzing competitive developments in the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market, including research and development, merger and acquisition, collaboration, and product launch Analyzing core competencies and market shares of leading companies in a comprehensive manner Forecasting the growth of the overall global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market and its important segments on the basis of revenue and volume Pinpointing market opportunities for stakeholders, vendors, market players, and other interested parties Strategically analyzing microeconomic and macroeconomic factors and their influence on future prospects and growth trends of the global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology market

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TOC

1 Report Overview1.1 Study Scope1.2 Key Market Segments1.3 Players Covered: Ranking by Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Revenue1.4 Market Analysis by Type1.4.1 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size Growth Rate by Type: 2020 VS 20261.4.2 Cell Line Engineering1.4.3 Animal Genetic Engineering1.4.4 Plant Genetic Engineering1.4.5 Other1.5 Market by Application1.5.1 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Share by Application: 2020 VS 20261.5.2 Biotechnology Companies1.5.3 Pharmaceutical Companies1.5.4 Hospital Laboratory and Diagnostic Laboratory1.5.5 Academic and Research Institutes1.5.6 Others1.6 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19): Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Industry Impact1.6.1 How the Covid-19 is Affecting the Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Industry1.6.1.1 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Business Impact Assessment Covid-191.6.1.2 Supply Chain Challenges1.6.1.3 COVID-19s Impact On Crude Oil and Refined Products1.6.2 Market Trends and Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Potential Opportunities in the COVID-19 Landscape1.6.3 Measures / Proposal against Covid-191.6.3.1 Government Measures to Combat Covid-19 Impact1.6.3.2 Proposal for Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Players to Combat Covid-19 Impact1.7 Study Objectives1.8 Years Considered2 Global Growth Trends by Regions2.1 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Perspective (2015-2026)2.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Growth Trends by Regions2.2.1 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Regions: 2015 VS 2020 VS 20262.2.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Historic Market Share by Regions (2015-2020)2.2.3 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Forecasted Market Size by Regions (2021-2026)2.3 Industry Trends and Growth Strategy2.3.1 Market Top Trends2.3.2 Market Drivers2.3.3 Market Challenges2.3.4 Porters Five Forces Analysis2.3.5 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Growth Strategy2.3.6 Primary Interviews with Key Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Players (Opinion Leaders)3 Competition Landscape by Key Players3.1 Global Top Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Players by Market Size3.1.1 Global Top Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Players by Revenue (2015-2020)3.1.2 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Revenue Market Share by Players (2015-2020)3.1.3 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Share by Company Type (Tier 1, Tier 2 and Tier 3)3.2 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Concentration Ratio3.2.1 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Concentration Ratio (CR5 and HHI)3.2.2 Global Top 10 and Top 5 Companies by Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Revenue in 20193.3 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players Head office and Area Served3.4 Key Players Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Product Solution and Service3.5 Date of Enter into Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market3.6 Mergers & Acquisitions, Expansion Plans4 Breakdown Data by Type (2015-2026)4.1 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Historic Market Size by Type (2015-2020)4.2 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Forecasted Market Size by Type (2021-2026)5 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Breakdown Data by Application (2015-2026)5.1 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)5.2 Global Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Forecasted Market Size by Application (2021-2026)6 North America6.1 North America Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size (2015-2020)6.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players in North America (2019-2020)6.3 North America Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Type (2015-2020)6.4 North America Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)7 Europe7.1 Europe Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size (2015-2020)7.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players in Europe (2019-2020)7.3 Europe Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Type (2015-2020)7.4 Europe Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)8 China8.1 China Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size (2015-2020)8.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players in China (2019-2020)8.3 China Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Type (2015-2020)8.4 China Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)9 Japan9.1 Japan Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size (2015-2020)9.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players in Japan (2019-2020)9.3 Japan Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Type (2015-2020)9.4 Japan Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)10 Southeast Asia10.1 Southeast Asia Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size (2015-2020)10.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players in Southeast Asia (2019-2020)10.3 Southeast Asia Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Type (2015-2020)10.4 Southeast Asia Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)11 India11.1 India Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size (2015-2020)11.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players in India (2019-2020)11.3 India Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Type (2015-2020)11.4 India Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)12 Central & South America12.1 Central & South America Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size (2015-2020)12.2 Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Key Players in Central & South America (2019-2020)12.3 Central & South America Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Type (2015-2020)12.4 Central & South America Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Size by Application (2015-2020)13 Key Players Profiles13.1 Sigma-Aldrich13.1.1 Sigma-Aldrich Company Details13.1.2 Sigma-Aldrich Business Overview and Its Total Revenue13.1.3 Sigma-Aldrich Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Introduction13.1.4 Sigma-Aldrich Revenue in Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Business (2015-2020))13.1.5 Sigma-Aldrich Recent Development13.2 Sangamo Therapeutics13.2.1 Sangamo Therapeutics Company Details13.2.2 Sangamo Therapeutics Business Overview and Its Total Revenue13.2.3 Sangamo Therapeutics Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Introduction13.2.4 Sangamo Therapeutics Revenue in Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Business (2015-2020)13.2.5 Sangamo Therapeutics Recent Development13.3 Labomics13.3.1 Labomics Company Details13.3.2 Labomics Business Overview and Its Total Revenue13.3.3 Labomics Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Introduction13.3.4 Labomics Revenue in Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Business (2015-2020)13.3.5 Labomics Recent Development13.4 Thermo Fisher Scientific13.4.1 Thermo Fisher Scientific Company Details13.4.2 Thermo Fisher Scientific Business Overview and Its Total Revenue13.4.3 Thermo Fisher Scientific Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Introduction13.4.4 Thermo Fisher Scientific Revenue in Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Business (2015-2020)13.4.5 Thermo Fisher Scientific Recent Development13.5 Gilead13.5.1 Gilead Company Details13.5.2 Gilead Business Overview and Its Total Revenue13.5.3 Gilead Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Introduction13.5.4 Gilead Revenue in Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Business (2015-2020)13.5.5 Gilead Recent Development14 Analysts Viewpoints/Conclusions15 Appendix15.1 Research Methodology15.1.1 Methodology/Research Approach15.1.2 Data Source15.2 Disclaimer15.3 Author Details

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Zinc Finger Nuclease Technology Market Projected to Witness Vigorous Expansion by 2020-2026 | , Sigma-Aldrich, Sangamo Therapeutics - StartupNG