Category Archives: Genetics

HOUSTON, Oct. 17, 2019 /PRNewswire/ -- Researchers fromInvitae Corporation (NYSE: NVTA), a leading medical genetics company, are presenting data showing the increasing utility of genetic information at the American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG) annual meeting this week, ranging from comprehensive screening for cancer patients, to appropriate clinical follow up for women using non-invasive prenatal screening, to the limitations of direct to consumer genetic screening health reports.

The company's research includes three platform presentations and multiple poster sessions, many performed in collaboration with leading academic researchers. Among the data presented is a study evaluating the utility of combined germline testing and tumor profiling (somatic testing) in cancer patients. Germline and somatic testing are increasingly used in precision treatment of people with cancer, although frequently are ordered separately in clinical practice. Data presented at the meeting shows a substantial number of patients with medically significant variants in hereditary cancer syndrome genes in their tumor profile carry the same variant in their germline, thereby establishing a previously unknown risk of hereditary cancer and suggesting the value of combined or concurrent testing to inform precision medicine approaches.

"The research we are presenting at this year's ASHG meeting provides meaningful insight into both the science and practice of genetics, helping identify how we as clinicians can better use deep genetic insights to help a wide array of patients, whether they are cancer patients, women having a child or healthy adults seeking to better understand their risk of disease," said Robert Nussbaum, M.D., chief medical officer of Invitae. "We are proud and grateful to be able to join our colleagues from across genetic medicine in meaningful conversations that push genetic medicine forward."

Following are research from the company and collaborators to be presented at the meeting:

Wednesday, October 16:

Poster presentation #819W | 2:00 3:00 pm Germline testing in colorectal cancer: Increased yield and precision therapy implications of comprehensive multigene panels. Presented by Shan Yang, PhD. Invitae.

Poster presentation #2427W | 2:00 3:00 pm Harmonizing tumor sequencing with germline genetic testing: identification of at-risk individuals for hereditary cancer disorders. Presented by Daniel Pineda-Alvarez, MD, FACMG, Invitae.

Poster presentation #606W | 3:00 4:00 pm A comprehensive evaluation of the importance of prenatal diagnostic testing in the era of increased utilization of non-invasive prenatal screening. Presented by Jenna Guiltinan, MS, LCGC, Invitae.

Thursday, October 17:

Platform presentation #235 | 5:00 pm, Room 370A, Level 3 Limitations of direct-to-consumer genetic screening for hereditary breast, ovarian and colorectal cancer risk. Presented by: Edward Esplin, MD, PhD, FACMG, FACP, Invitae.

Poster presentation #763T | 2:00 3:00 pm In-depth dissection of APC pathogenic variants: Spectrum of more than 400 pathogenic variants, challenges of variant interpretation, and new observations in a large clinical laboratory testing cohort. Presented by: Hio Chung Kang, PhD, Invitae.

Poster presentation #1399T | 2:00 3:00 pm Prediction of lethality and severity of osteogenesis imperfecta variants in the triple-helix regions of COL1A1 and COL1A2. Presented by: Vikas Pejaver, PhD, University of Washington.

Friday, October 18:

Platform presentation #264 | 9:00 am, Room 361D, Level 3 Million Veteran Program Return Of Actionable Results - Familial Hypercholesterolemia (MVP-ROAR-FH) Study: Considerations for variant return to mega-biobank participants. Presented by Jason Vassy, MD, MPH, VA, Boston Healthcare System.

Platform presentation #265 | 9:15 am, Room 361D, Level 3 Comprehensive secondary findings analysis of parental samples submitted for exome evaluation yields a high positive rate. Presented by Eden Haverfield, DPhil, FACMG, Invitae.

Poster presentation #698F | 2:00 3:00 pm Reporting of variants in genes with limited, disputed, or no evidence for a Mendelian condition among GenomeConnect participants. Presented by: Juliann Savatt, MS, LGC, Geisinger.

About InvitaeInvitae Corporation(NYSE: NVTA)is a leading medical genetics company, whose mission is to bring comprehensive genetic information into mainstream medicine to improve healthcare for billions of people. Invitae's goal is to aggregate the world's genetic tests into a single service with higher quality, faster turnaround time, and lower prices. For more information, visit the company's website atinvitae.com.

Safe Harbor StatementsThis press release contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995, including statements relating to the increasing utility of genetic information; the utility of combined germline and somatic testing; and the benefits of the company's research. Forward-looking statements are subject to risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results to differ materially, and reported results should not be considered as an indication of future performance. These risks and uncertainties include, but are not limited to: the applicability of clinical results to actual outcomes; the company's history of losses; the company's ability to compete; the company's failure to manage growth effectively; the company's need to scale its infrastructure in advance of demand for its tests and to increase demand for its tests; the company's ability to use rapidly changing genetic data to interpret test results accurately and consistently; security breaches, loss of data and other disruptions; laws and regulations applicable to the company's business; and the other risks set forth in the company's filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission, including the risks set forth in the company's Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 2019. These forward-looking statements speak only as of the date hereof, and Invitae Corporation disclaims any obligation to update these forward-looking statements.

Contact:Laura D'Angelopr@invitae.com(628) 213-3283

SOURCE Invitae Corporation

http://invitae.com

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Research presented by Invitae at the American Society of Human Genetics Meeting Pushes Science and Practice of Genetics Forward - PRNewswire

Verily Life Sciences, Alphabet's health research arm and sister company to Google Health, announced it'spartnering with genetics and health technology firm Color to supply participants of Verily's Project Baseline research platform with genetic information. Business Insider Intelligence

Project Baseline began in 2017 with goals of making clinical research more accessible to participants and arriving at a quantifiable "baseline" for good health. The research project has since launched several clinical research projects in partnership with some of the largest names in healthcare, including: Pfizer, Mayo Clinic, Novartis, the American Heart Association, and Stanford Medicine.

The partnership could enable Verily to incorporate data on genetic risk factors into its various clinical studies, leading to a more in-depth and holistic understanding of health.It's unclear exactly how information gleaned from Color's genetic tests will be leveraged in Project Baseline studies, but it's possible that future research initiatives may choose to examine how genetic risk factors affect health outcomes alongside patients' behavior and medical history.

And allowing Project Baseline members access to genetic testing and personalized health advice may improve participant engagement with the particular research program they're involved in and with the Project Baseline platform overall, which is critical given that86%of clinical trials fail to hit their participation goals.

We caught up with Color CEO Othman Laraki to discuss how a Verily-Color tie up furthers Color's goals for a genetic future of healthcare below are some key takeaways from our conversation:

We think Color will benefit from the exposure that comes when partnering with a Google-affiliated business, and more users should facilitate stronger population health insights.In the last two months, Color has scored massive partnerships with NIH and its All of Us program and now Verily: two major names in healthcare. And each new project raises not just Color's profile, but that of the genetic testing field as a whole, according to Laraki.

Laraki pointed out that the idea of every home having a personal computer was once considered crazy and that one day it may be the case that genetic data is as commonplace in healthcare as computers are in the home. But this might only be possible if far-reaching research programs like All of Us and Project Baseline can successfully attract participants and deliver actionable results.

Color has become a standout player in genetic testing by focusing on large-scale population health projects which I (Zach) think is a smart business model in the face of apotential slowdownin the direct-to-consumer genetic testing market."In some ways, using a doctor's time to measure your height and have them listen to your heartbeat is almost more expensive now than getting a complete genomic profile," says Laraki.

And the fact that genetic testing is becoming cheaper for consumers could be part of why we're seeing so much interest from providers and research firms in population-level genetic health research: MIT Technology Review now estimates that over100 millionpeople globally will have taken an at-home genetic test by 2021, up from the 26 million consumers at the beginning of 2019, for example.

With industry leaders like Illumina expressing concerns around a potential slowdown for the direct-to-consumer genetic testing market, a model that's given rise to 23andMe and Ancestry the two biggest names in genetic testing today I think that Color's model will conversely gain traction as providers are increasingly becominginterestedin moving beyond individual patient results and searching for the root cause of conditions affecting their communities.

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Alphabet-backed Verily partners with Color to bring genetic insights to its research - Business Insider Nordic

About 5% to 10% of breast cancers are thought to be hereditary, caused by abnormal genes passed from parent to child.

Genes are short segments of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) found in chromosomes. DNA contains the instructions for building proteins. And proteins control the structure and function of all the cells that make up your body.

Think of your genes as an instruction manual for cell growth and function. Changes or mistakes in the DNA are like typographical errors. They may provide the wrong set of instructions, leading to faulty cell growth or function. In any one person, if there is an error in a gene, that same mistake will appear in all the cells that contain the same gene. This is like having an instruction manual in which all the copies have the same typographical error.

There are two types of DNA changes: those that are inherited and those that happen over time. Inherited DNA changes are passed down from parent to child. Inherited DNA changes are called germ-line alterations or mutations.

DNA changes that happen over the course of a lifetime, as a result of the natural aging process or exposure to chemicals in the environment, are called somatic alterations.

Some DNA changes are harmless, but others can cause disease or other health issues. DNA changes that negatively affect health are called mutations.

Most inherited cases of breast cancer are associated with mutations in two genes: BRCA1 (BReast CAncer gene one) and BRCA2 (BReast CAncer gene two).

Everyone has BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. The function of the BRCA genes is to repair cell damage and keep breast, ovarian, and other cells growing normally. But when these genes contain mutations that are passed from generation to generation, the genes don't function normally and breast, ovarian, and other cancer risk increases. BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations may account for up to 10% of all breast cancers, or 1 out of every 10 cases.

Having a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation doesn't mean you will be diagnosed with breast cancer. Researchers are learning that other mutations in pieces of chromosomes -- called SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) -- may be linked to higher breast cancer risk in women with a BRCA1 mutation as well as women who didn't inherit a breast cancer gene mutation.

Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer and have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation often have a family history of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and other cancers. Still, most people who develop breast cancer did not inherit a genetic mutation linked to breast cancer and have no family history of the disease.

You are substantially more likely to have a genetic mutation linked to breast cancer if:

If one family member has a genetic mutation linked to breast cancer, it does not mean that all family members will have it.

The average woman in the United States has about a 1 in 8, or about 12%, risk of developing breast cancer in her lifetime. Women who have a BRCA1 mutation or BRCA2 mutation (or both) can have up to a 72% risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer during their lifetimes. Breast cancers associated with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation tend to develop in younger women and occur more often in both breasts than cancers in women without these genetic mutations.

Women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation also have an increased risk of developing ovarian, colon, and pancreatic cancers, as well as melanoma.

Men who have a BRCA2 mutation have a higher risk of breast cancer than men who don't -- about 8% by the time they're 80 years old. This is about 80 times greater than average.

Men with a BRCA1 mutation have a slightly higher risk of prostate cancer. Men with a BRCA2 mutation are 7 times more likely than men without the mutation to develop prostate cancer. Other cancer risks, such as cancer of the skin or digestive tract, also may be slightly higher in men with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation.

Mutations in other genes are also associated with breast cancer. These genetic mutations are much less common and don't seem to increase risk as much as BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, which are considered rare. Still, because these genetic mutations are even rarer, they haven't been studied as much as the BRCA mutations.

Inheriting two abnormal copies of the BRCA2, BRIP1, MRE11A, NBN, PALB2, RAD50, or RAD51C genes causes the disease Fanconi anema, which suppresses bone marrow function and leads to extremely low levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. People with Fanconi anemia also have a higher risk of several other types of cancer, including kidney cancer and brain cancer.

There are genetic tests available to determine if someone has a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. A genetic counselor also may order testing for ATM, CDH1, CHEK2, MRE11A, MSH6, NBN, PALB2, PMS2, PTEN, RAD50, RAD51C, SEC23B, or TP53 mutations, individually or as part of a larger gene panel that includes BRCA1 and BRCA2.

For more information, visit the Breastcancer.org Genetic Testing pages.

If you know you have an abnormal gene linked to breast cancer, there are lifestyle choices you can make to keep your risk as low it can be:

These are just a few steps you can take. Review the links on the left side of this page for more options.

Along with these lifestyle choices, there are other risk-reduction options for women at high risk because of abnormal genetics.

Hormonal therapy medicines: Two SERMs (selective estrogen receptor modulators) and two aromatase inhibitors have been shown to reduce the risk of developing hormone-receptor-positive breast cancer in women at high risk.

Hormonal therapy medicines do not reduce the risk of hormone-receptor-negative breast cancer.

More frequent screening: If you're at high risk because of an abnormal breast cancer gene, you and your doctor will develop a screening plan tailored to your unique situation. You may start being screened when you're younger than 40. In addition to the recommended screening guidelines for women at average risk, a screening plan for a woman at high risk may include:

Women with an abnormal breast cancer gene need to be screened twice a year because they have a much higher risk of cancer developing in the time between yearly screenings. For example, the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York, NY recommends that women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene have both a digital mammogram and an MRI scan each year, about 6 months apart (for example, a mammogram in December and an MRI in June).

A breast ultrasound is another powerful tool that can help detect breast cancer in women with an abnormal breast cancer gene. This test does not take the place of digital mammography and MRI scanning.

Talk to your doctor, radiologist, and genetic counselor about developing a specialized program for early detection that addresses your breast cancer risk, meets your individual needs, and gives you peace of mind.

Protective surgery: Removing the healthy breasts and ovaries -- called prophylactic surgery ("prophylactic" means "protective") -- are very aggressive, irreversible risk-reduction options that some women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene choose.

Prophylactic breast surgery may be able to reduce a woman's risk of developing breast cancer by as much as 97%. The surgery removes nearly all of the breast tissue, so there are very few breast cells left behind that could develop into a cancer.

Women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene may reduce their risk of breast cancer by about 50% by having prophylactic ovary and fallopian tube removal (salpingo-oophorectomy) before menopause. Removing the ovaries lowers the risk of breast cancer because the ovaries are the main source of estrogen in a premenopausal womans body. Removing the ovaries doesnt reduce the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women because fat and muscle tissue are the main producers of estrogen in these women. Prophylactic removal of both ovaries and fallopian tubes reduces the risk of ovarian cancer in women at any age, before or after menopause.

Research also has shown that women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene who have prophylactic ovary removal have better survival if they eventually are diagnosed with breast or ovarian cancer.

The benefit of prophylactic surgeries is usually counted one year at a time. Thats why the younger you are at the time of surgery, the larger the potential benefit, and the older you are, the lower the benefit. Also, as you get older youre more likely to develop other medical conditions that affect how long you live, such as diabetes and heart disease.

Of course, each woman's situation is unique. Talk to your doctor about your personal level of risk and how best to manage it.

It's important to remember that no procedure -- not even removing both healthy breasts and ovaries at a young age -- totally eliminates the risk of cancer. There is still a small risk that cancer can develop in the areas where the breasts used to be. Close follow-up is necessary, even after prophylactic surgery.

Prophylactic surgery decisions require a great deal of thought, patience, and discussion with your doctors, genetic counselor, and family over time -- together with a tremendous amount of courage. Take the time you need to consider these options and make decisions that feel comfortable to you.

For more information, visit the Breastcancer.org Prophylactic Mastectomy and Prophylactic Ovary Removal pages.

Think Pink, Live Green: A Step-by-Step Guide to Reducing Your Risk of Breast Cancer teaches you the biology of breast development and how modern life affects breast cancer risk. Order a free booklet by mail or download the PDF of the booklet to learn 31 risk-reducing steps you can take today.

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Genetics: Breast Cancer Risk Factors

By-Laws of the Graduate Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics

Preamble

The Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program (GIDP) is comprised of an integrated set of graduate-level educational activities, both classroom- and research-based, in the broad discipline of genetics. The Program awards a Ph.D. degree in Genetics and in special circumstances an M.S. degree. Faculty members in the Program have primary appointments across many Colleges at the University of Arizona. The Executive Committee will be appointed by and responsible to the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs with the consent of the membership. The Executive Committee serves as the executive, administrative, and policy-making board for the Program. The organization and structure of the Genetics GIDP conforms to the Graduate College policies and to Guidelines of the GIDPs established by the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs.

In addition to its other functions, the Executive Committee, with the input of all the faculty of the Program, provides the direction and leadership necessary to maintain and foster excellence in the Genetics GIDPs educational activities. In accordance with this mandate, the Executive Committee will regularly review and evaluate faculty membership, the Genetics GIDPs educational activities, and any other activities that come under the purvey of this GIDP. These By-Laws constitute the rules that govern the various functions of the Genetics GIDP.

Article I. Executive Committee of the Genetics GIDP

I.1. The Executive Committee is responsible for administering the graduate program, including (i) recruitment and admission of students into the Program, (ii) establishment of program curricula, (iii) establishment of requirements for advancing to candidacy and degree completion, (iv) periodic reviews, typically annually, of student progress, (v) promotion of an environment that facilitates scholarly activities in Genetics, (vi) organization of seminars, student colloquia, journal clubs, and other forums for communication of genetics research, (vii) strategic planning for the future development of the Program, (viii) raising and allocating funds for program activities, (ix) review of faculty membership and participation in the GIDP, and (x) reporting the Programs activities and functions to the faculty and to the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs.

I.2. The Executive Committee will consist of no less than eight faculty members representing a variety of disciplines across the Genetics GIDP, including departments from multiple colleges currently involved in the Program, and one Genetics GIDP student representative, preferably at the level of Candidacy. Faculty members of the Executive Committee will serve a three-year term. Terms will be staggered so that two members of the Executive Committee rotate off the committee every one or two years. The Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs will appoint new faculty members onto the Executive Committee with the consent of the membership. Faculty members of the Executive Committee may serve a maximum of three consecutive terms. The outgoing Chairperson will serve a term on the Executive Committee, after the end of his/her term as Chair, as ex-officio (non-voting) member, in an advisory capacity to aid a smooth transition and help the new Chairperson get up to speed with performing Chair duties. Student representatives serve a one-year term and will be elected by the students in the graduate program.

I.3. The Executive Committee will sanction the establishment of Standing and Ad-hoc Subcommittees as needed for the administration of the Program as defined in Article I, subsection 1.

Article II. Chairperson of the Genetics GIDP

II.1. The Chairperson of the Executive Committee will also be Chair of the Genetics GIDP. The Chair of the Genetics GIDP, with the advice of the Executive Committee and with the input of the faculty, is granted those powers and responsibilities necessary for a well-functioning program.

II.2. Election of the Chairperson. The Dean of the Graduate College, through the Faculty Director of the Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs, will appoint a member of the Executive Committee, nominated with the input from the Genetics faculty, to serve as Chairperson of the Genetics GIDP. Appointment of the Chairperson requires a two-thirds positive vote by Genetics Faculty. A quorum shall constitute one-third of the Genetics faculty members. The Chairperson will serve a five-year term with the possibility of one re-election.

II.3. The duties of the Chairperson of the Genetics GIDP are as follows.

3a. With the advice of the Executive Committee, the Chairperson shall appoint Standing Subcommittees to oversee key functions of the GIDP, including student recruitment, student progress, educational curriculum, scholarly engagement (journal clubs, colloquia, etc.), and submission of appropriate competitive and non-competitive grants.

3b. Call and preside over meetings of the GIDP.

i. meetings of the Executive Committee to be held at least once a semester;

ii. meetings of the entire faculty of the Genetics GIDP to be held at least once per year;

iii. meetings of the duly sanctioned Standing Subcommittees as needed.

3c. Administer the Genetics GIDP budget.

3d. Establish qualifying and thesis committees.

3e. Administer curricular activities and execute the educational directives of the Executive Committee.

3f. Administer student academic affairs.

3g. Supervise the Program Coordinator.

3h. Advise the Dean of the Graduate College by way of the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs on issues pertinent to the Genetics GIDP.

3i. Report at minimum annually to the faculty members on the state of the Genetics GIDP.

Article III. Membership

III.1. The Genetics GIDP faculty members consist of tenured, tenure-eligible, Clinical-Series and Research-Series faculty at the University of Arizona who participate in research and education in genetics.

III.2. Membership criteria.

2a. Faculty members will be nominated by submitting of a request for membership, consisting of a cover letter and a current curriculum vitae, to the Executive Committee. Criteria for membership shall include interest in participation in graduate teaching and research and demonstrated current scholastic activity in the broad field of genetics. Therefore, the cover letter should include a statement of interest addressing the aforementioned points.

2b. Upon evaluation of the request, the Executive Committee will vote on the nominee. If a nominee receives a two-thirds majority vote, the nomination will be forwarded to the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs who shall confer membership. New members are required to present a research seminar in the Genetics Seminar Series within one year of joining the Genetics GIDP Program. Continuation of membership is contingent upon meeting the same criteria at periodic review by the Executive Committee.

2c. A member of the Genetics GIDP will be asked to leave the Program if s/he fails to participate in the activities of the Program. Participation in the Program includes service on a Subcommittee, acting as a dissertation/thesis director for a Genetics GIDP graduate student, teaching a graduate course or seminar in Genetics, or continued scholarly productivity in the general area of genetics.

2d. Members dropped from membership may reapply for membership as outlined in Article III, section 2a.

III.3. Membership responsibilities.

3a. Tenure track members of the Genetics GIDP may serve as dissertation/thesis advisors for students in the Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program. Research series faculty who wish to supervise a graduate student must request special permission from the Graduate College, Deans office (Associate Dean Janet Sturman) through the Genetics GIDP, for permission to mentor a student in the Program.

3b. Members of the Genetics GIDP may be asked to serve on the various Subcommittees of the Program, to participate in teaching, to act as a thesis advisor, to serve on a thesis committee, or to participate in other scholarly activities of the program.

3c. Members serving as major advisors for graduate students in the Program, will be expected to share in the support of graduate students in the Program at a level determined by the Executive Committee.

III.4. Voting. Each faculty member of the Genetics GIDP shall have one vote on matters brought to the Program by the Executive Committee. A quorum shall constitute one-third of the faculty membership.

III.5. Annual Genetics GIDP surveys will be sent out to monitor the participation and enthusiasm of the faculty. Questions will include what percentage of faculty time is spent involved at any level with the Genetics GIDP and whether faculty still wish to be involved with the Genetics GIDP program.

Article IV Amendments

These By-Laws will be reviewed and amended as needed by majority vote of the Executive Committee and approved by a two-thirds vote of the Genetics faculty. A quorum shall constitute one-third of the Genetics faculty.

Edited Nov 29, 2017 by the EC

Reviewed Nov 30, 2017 by the Genetics faculty

Approved Dec 5, 2017 by Genetics faculty vote

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Genetics | Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs

This article is a non-technical introduction to the subject. For the main encyclopedia article, see Genetics.

Genetics is the study of heredity and variations. Heredity and variations are controlled by geneswhat they are, what they do, and how they work. Genes inside the nucleus of a cell are strung together in such a way that the sequence carries information: that information determines how living organisms inherit various features (phenotypic traits). For example, offspring produced by sexual reproduction usually look similar to each of their parents because they have inherited some of each of their parents' genes. Genetics identifies which features are inherited, and explains how these features pass from generation to generation. In addition to inheritance, genetics studies how genes are turned on and off to control what substances are made in a cellgene expression; and how a cell dividesmitosis or meiosis.

Some phenotypic traits can be seen, such as eye color while others can only be detected, such as blood type or intelligence. Traits determined by genes can be modified by the animal's surroundings (environment): for example, the general design of a tiger's stripes is inherited, but the specific stripe pattern is determined by the tiger's surroundings. Another example is a person's height: it is determined by both genetics and nutrition.

Chromosomes are tiny packages which contain one DNA molecule and its associated proteins. Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). This number varies between speciesfor example, many primates have 24 pairs. Meiosis creates special cells, sperm in males and eggs in females, which only have 23 chromosomes. These two cells merge into one during the fertilization stage of sexual reproduction, creating a zygote. In a zygote, a nucleic acid double helix divides, with each single helix occupying one of the daughter cells, resulting in half the normal number of genes. By the time the zygote divides again, genetic recombination has created a new embryo with 23 pairs of chromosomes, half from each parent. Mating and resultant mate choice result in sexual selection. In normal cell division (mitosis) is possible when the double helix separates, and a complement of each separated half is made, resulting in two identical double helices in one cell, with each occupying one of the two new daughter cells created when the cell divides.

Chromosomes all contain DNA made up of four nucleotides, abbreviated C (cytosine), G (guanine), A (adenine), or T (thymine), which line up in a particular sequence and make a long string. There are two strings of nucleotides coiled around one another in each chromosome: a double helix. C on one string is always opposite from G on the other string; A is always opposite T. There are about 3.2 billion nucleotide pairs on all the human chromosomes: this is the human genome. The order of the nucleotides carries genetic information, whose rules are defined by the genetic code, similar to how the order of letters on a page of text carries information. Three nucleotides in a rowa tripletcarry one unit of information: a codon.

The genetic code not only controls inheritance: it also controls gene expression, which occurs when a portion of the double helix is uncoiled, exposing a series of the nucleotides, which are within the interior of the DNA. This series of exposed triplets (codons) carries the information to allow machinery in the cell to "read" the codons on the exposed DNA, which results in the making of RNA molecules. RNA in turn makes either amino acids or microRNA, which are responsible for all of the structure and function of a living organism; i.e. they determine all the features of the cell and thus the entire individual. Closing the uncoiled segment turns off the gene.

The heritability of a trait (like height) in a population essentially conveys what percentage of the observed variation comes from differences in genes vs. differences in environment. Each unique form of a single gene is called an allele; different forms are collectively called polymorphisms. As an example, one allele for the gene for hair color and skin cell pigmentation could instruct the body to produce black pigment, producing black hair and pigmented skin; while a different allele of the same gene in a different individual could give garbled instructions that would result in a failure to produce any pigment, giving white hair and no pigmented skin: albinism. Mutations are random changes in genes creating new alleles, which in turn produce new traits, which could help, harm, or have no new effect on the individual's likelihood of survival; thus, mutations are the basis for evolution.

Contents

Genes are pieces of DNA that contain information for synthesis of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) or polypeptides. Genes are inherited as units, with two parents dividing out copies of their genes to their offspring. This process can be compared with mixing two hands of cards, shuffling them, and then dealing them out again. Humans have two copies of each of their genes, and make copies that are found in eggs or spermbut they only include one copy of each type of gene. An egg and sperm join to form a complete set of genes. The eventually resulting offspring has the same number of genes as their parents, but for any gene one of their two copies comes from their father, and one from their mother.[1]

The effects of this mixing depend on the types (the alleles) of the gene. If the father has two copies of an allele for red hair, and the mother has two copies for brown hair, all their children get the two alleles that give different instructions, one for red hair and one for brown. The hair color of these children depends on how these alleles work together. If one allele dominates the instructions from another, it is called the dominant allele, and the allele that is overridden is called the recessive allele. In the case of a daughter with alleles for both red and brown hair, brown is dominant and she ends up with brown hair.[2]

Although the red color allele is still there in this brown-haired girl, it doesn't show. This is a difference between what you see on the surface (the traits of an organism, called its phenotype) and the genes within the organism (its genotype). In this example you can call the allele for brown "B" and the allele for red "b". (It is normal to write dominant alleles with capital letters and recessive ones with lower-case letters.) The brown hair daughter has the "brown hair phenotype" but her genotype is Bb, with one copy of the B allele, and one of the b allele.

Now imagine that this woman grows up and has children with a brown-haired man who also has a Bb genotype. Her eggs will be a mixture of two types, one sort containing the B allele, and one sort the b allele. Similarly, her partner will produce a mix of two types of sperm containing one or the other of these two alleles. When the transmitted genes are joined up in their offspring, these children have a chance of getting either brown or red hair, since they could get a genotype of BB = brown hair, Bb = brown hair or bb = red hair. In this generation, there is therefore a chance of the recessive allele showing itself in the phenotype of the childrensome of them may have red hair like their grandfather.[2]

Many traits are inherited in a more complicated way than the example above. This can happen when there are several genes involved, each contributing a small part to the end result. Tall people tend to have tall children because their children get a package of many alleles that each contribute a bit to how much they grow. However, there are not clear groups of "short people" and "tall people", like there are groups of people with brown or red hair. This is because of the large number of genes involved; this makes the trait very variable and people are of many different heights.[3] Despite a common misconception, the green/blue eye traits are also inherited in this complex inheritance model.[4] Inheritance can also be complicated when the trait depends on interaction between genetics and environment. For example, malnutrition does not change traits like eye color, but can stunt growth.[5]

Some diseases are hereditary and run in families; others, such as infectious diseases, are caused by the environment. Other diseases come from a combination of genes and the environment.[6] Genetic disorders are diseases that are caused by a single allele of a gene and are inherited in families. These include Huntington's disease, Cystic fibrosis or Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Cystic fibrosis, for example, is caused by mutations in a single gene called CFTR and is inherited as a recessive trait.[7]

Other diseases are influenced by genetics, but the genes a person gets from their parents only change their risk of getting a disease. Most of these diseases are inherited in a complex way, with either multiple genes involved, or coming from both genes and the environment. As an example, the risk of breast cancer is 50 times higher in the families most at risk, compared to the families least at risk. This variation is probably due to a large number of alleles, each changing the risk a little bit.[8] Several of the genes have been identified, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2, but not all of them. However, although some of the risk is genetic, the risk of this cancer is also increased by being overweight, drinking a lot of alcohol and not exercising.[9] A woman's risk of breast cancer therefore comes from a large number of alleles interacting with her environment, so it is very hard to predict.

The function of genes is to provide the information needed to make molecules called proteins in cells.[1] Cells are the smallest independent parts of organisms: the human body contains about 100 trillion cells, while very small organisms like bacteria are just one single cell. A cell is like a miniature and very complex factory that can make all the parts needed to produce a copy of itself, which happens when cells divide. There is a simple division of labor in cellsgenes give instructions and proteins carry out these instructions, tasks like building a new copy of a cell, or repairing damage.[10] Each type of protein is a specialist that only does one job, so if a cell needs to do something new, it must make a new protein to do this job. Similarly, if a cell needs to do something faster or slower than before, it makes more or less of the protein responsible. Genes tell cells what to do by telling them which proteins to make and in what amounts.

Proteins are made of a chain of 20 different types of amino acid molecules. This chain folds up into a compact shape, rather like an untidy ball of string. The shape of the protein is determined by the sequence of amino acids along its chain and it is this shape that, in turn, determines what the protein does.[10] For example, some proteins have parts of their surface that perfectly match the shape of another molecule, allowing the protein to bind to this molecule very tightly. Other proteins are enzymes, which are like tiny machines that alter other molecules.[11]

The information in DNA is held in the sequence of the repeating units along the DNA chain.[12] These units are four types of nucleotides (A,T,G and C) and the sequence of nucleotides stores information in an alphabet called the genetic code. When a gene is read by a cell the DNA sequence is copied into a very similar molecule called RNA (this process is called transcription). Transcription is controlled by other DNA sequences (such as promoters), which show a cell where genes are, and control how often they are copied. The RNA copy made from a gene is then fed through a structure called a ribosome, which translates the sequence of nucleotides in the RNA into the correct sequence of amino acids and joins these amino acids together to make a complete protein chain. The new protein then folds up into its active form. The process of moving information from the language of RNA into the language of amino acids is called translation.[13]

If the sequence of the nucleotides in a gene changes, the sequence of the amino acids in the protein it produces may also changeif part of a gene is deleted, the protein produced is shorter and may not work any more.[10] This is the reason why different alleles of a gene can have different effects in an organism. As an example, hair color depends on how much of a dark substance called melanin is put into the hair as it grows. If a person has a normal set of the genes involved in making melanin, they make all the proteins needed and they grow dark hair. However, if the alleles for a particular protein have different sequences and produce proteins that can't do their jobs, no melanin is produced and the person has white skin and hair (albinism).[14]

Genes are copied each time a cell divides into two new cells. The process that copies DNA is called DNA replication.[12] It is through a similar process that a child inherits genes from its parents, when a copy from the mother is mixed with a copy from the father.

DNA can be copied very easily and accurately because each piece of DNA can direct the creation of a new copy of its information. This is because DNA is made of two strands that pair together like the two sides of a zipper. The nucleotides are in the center, like the teeth in the zipper, and pair up to hold the two strands together. Importantly, the four different sorts of nucleotides are different shapes, so for the strands to close up properly, an A nucleotide must go opposite a T nucleotide, and a G opposite a C. This exact pairing is called base pairing.[12]

When DNA is copied, the two strands of the old DNA are pulled apart by enzymes; then they pair up with new nucleotides and then close. This produces two new pieces of DNA, each containing one strand from the old DNA and one newly made strand. This process is not predictably perfect as proteins attach to a nucleotide while they are building and cause a change in the sequence of that gene. These changes in DNA sequence are called mutations.[15] Mutations produce new alleles of genes. Sometimes these changes stop the functioning of that gene or make it serve another advantageous function, such as the melanin genes discussed above. These mutations and their effects on the traits of organisms are one of the causes of evolution.[16]

A population of organisms evolves when an inherited trait becomes more common or less common over time.[16] For instance, all the mice living on an island would be a single population of mice: some with white fur, some gray. If over generations, white mice became more frequent and gray mice less frequent, then the color of the fur in this population of mice would be evolving. In terms of genetics, this is called an increase in allele frequency.

Alleles become more or less common either by chance in a process called genetic drift, or by natural selection.[17] In natural selection, if an allele makes it more likely for an organism to survive and reproduce, then over time this allele becomes more common. But if an allele is harmful, natural selection makes it less common. In the above example, if the island were getting colder each year and snow became present for much of the time, then the allele for white fur would favor survival, since predators would be less likely to see them against the snow, and more likely to see the gray mice. Over time white mice would become more and more frequent, while gray mice less and less.

Mutations create new alleles. These alleles have new DNA sequences and can produce proteins with new properties.[18] So if an island was populated entirely by black mice, mutations could happen creating alleles for white fur. The combination of mutations creating new alleles at random, and natural selection picking out those that are useful, causes adaptation. This is when organisms change in ways that help them to survive and reproduce. Many such changes, studied in evolutionary developmental biology, affect the way the embryo develops into an adult body.

Since traits come from the genes in a cell, putting a new piece of DNA into a cell can produce a new trait. This is how genetic engineering works. For example, rice can be given genes from a maize and a soil bacteria so the rice produces beta-carotene, which the body converts to Vitamin A.[19] This can help children suffering from Vitamin A deficiency. Another gene being put into some crops comes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis; the gene makes a protein that is an insecticide. The insecticide kills insects that eat the plants, but is harmless to people.[20] In these plants, the new genes are put into the plant before it is grown, so the genes are in every part of the plant, including its seeds.[21] The plant's offspring inherit the new genes, which has led to concern about the spread of new traits into wild plants.[22]

The kind of technology used in genetic engineering is also being developed to treat people with genetic disorders in an experimental medical technique called gene therapy.[23] However, here the new gene is put in after the person has grown up and become ill, so any new gene is not inherited by their children. Gene therapy works by trying to replace the allele that causes the disease with an allele that works properly.

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Introduction to genetics - Wikipedia

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Genetics is the study of genes and heredity. It studies how living organisms, including people, inherit traits from their parents. Genetics is generally considered part of the science of biology. Scientists who study genetics are called geneticists.

What are genes?

Genes are the basic units of heredity. They consist of DNA and are part of a larger structure called the chromosome. Genes carry information that determine what characteristics are inherited from an organism's parents. They determine traits such as the color of your hair, how tall you are, and the color of your eyes.

What are chromosomes?

Chromosomes are tiny structures inside cells made from DNA and protein. The information inside chromosomes acts like a recipe that tells cells how to function. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell. Other plants and animals have different numbers of chromosomes. For example, a garden pea has 14 chromosomes and an elephant has 56.

What is DNA?

The actual instructions inside the chromosome is stored in a long molecule called DNA. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.

Gregor Mendel is considered the father of the science of genetics. Mendel was a scientist during the 1800s who studied inheritance by experimenting with pea plants in his garden. Through his experiments he was able to show patterns of inheritance and prove that traits were inherited from the parents.

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Biology for Kids: Genetics - ducksters.com

4 General Chemistry Iand General Chemistry Laboratory I Honors General Chemical Science Iand Honors Chemical Science Laboratory I (F) 4 General Chemistry IIand General Chemistry Laboratory II Honors General Chemical Science IIand Honors Chemical Science Laboratory II (S) 4 Organic Chemistry Iand Organic Chemistry Laboratory I Organic Chemistry for Majors Iand Organic Majors Laboratory I (F) Organic Chemistry for Honors Iand Organic Honors Laboratory I (F) 4 Organic Chemistry IIand Organic Chemistry Laboratory II Organic Chemistry for Majors IIand Organic Majors Laboratory II (S) Organic Chemistry for Honors IIand Organic Honors Laboratory II (S) CHEM3103&CHEM3105Techniques of Chemical Measurement Iand Introduction to Chemical Research Techniques4 CHEM3301Physical Chemistry Lecture I3 orCHEM3405 Physical Chemistry of Biomolecules CHEM4401Biochemistry I3 BIOL1111Introduction to Organismal Biology4 orBIOL1911 Honors Introduction to Organismal Biology BIOL2112Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology4 orBIOL2912 Honors Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology BIOL2296Genetics (S)4 BIOL3096Cell Structure and Function (F)4 BIOL3324Molecular Biology (F)3 BIOL4344Research Techniques in Biochemistry (S)4 BIOL4376General Biochemistry II (F)3 16-9 Human Genetics (F) Developmental Biology (F) Advanced Cell Biology (Not offered every year) General Microbiology (S) Research Techniques in Molecular Biology (S) Immunology (S) Virology (F) Mammalian Physiology (S) Systems Neuroscience Mammalian Development (Not offered every year) Endocrinology (F) Biology of Cancer (S) Cell Proliferation (S) Physical Biochemistry (S) Contemporary Biology Inorganic Chemistry Physical Chemistry Lecture II Techniques of Chemical Measurement II Physical Chemistry Laboratory Iand Physical Chemistry Laboratory II Organic Structure and Mechanisms (F) MATH1041Calculus I4 orMATH1941 Honors Calculus I MATH1042Calculus II4 orMATH1942 Honors Calculus II MATH2043Calculus III4 orMATH2943 Honors Calculus III 4 Elementary Classical Physics I Honors Elementary Classical Physics I (F) General Physics I Honors General Physics I (F) 4 Elementary Classical Physics II Honors Elementary Classical Physics II (S) General Physics II Honors General Physics II (S) Total Credit Hours78-81

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Suddenly, Soo-Kyung, 42, and her husband Jae Lee, 57, another genetics specialist at O.H.S.U., had to transform from dispassionate scientists into parents of a patient, desperate for answers.

Among the brightest of those homegrown stars is Zhao Bowen, a Chinese science prodigy who dropped out of high school to start running a genetics lab.

Among the brightest of those homegrown stars is Zhao Bowen, a Chinese science prodigy who dropped out of high school to start running a genetics lab.

Krainer, a molecular genetics professor at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, N.Y., had worked on the scientific underpinnings of the medicine for more than 15 years.

Since these discoveries, the field of genetics has expanded even furtherall the way to our own front doors, in fact, thanks to at-home genetic tests such as 23andMe.

Coral genetics is a field of increasing interest to scientists.

Krainer, a molecular genetics professor at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, N.Y., had worked on the scientific underpinnings of the medicine for more than 15 years.

His father retired as a genetics professor at Northern Illinois University, also in DeKalb.

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Genetics | Definition of Genetics by Merriam-Webster

Genetics is the branch of medicine that looks at how hereditary and genetic factors play a role in causing a disease, birth defects, or inherited susceptibility to a health problem such as cancer or heart disease. Almost all disease is a result of the interaction between our genes and the environment. Genetic specialists provide individuals and families with information about inherited diseases, how they are passed down in the family, and how they can affect a person's health. Genetic services can include physical exams, health histories, diagnostic and laboratory tests, and genetic counseling. Genetic counselors and medical geneticists are specialists who can provide in-depth counseling about heritable disorders and determine if a person could be at risk. Family history holds key information that can unlock clues about you or your childrens future health.

Texans seek genetic services before and while pregnant to determine if the baby is at increased risk for birth defects and genetic conditions or if a medication or drug could affect the development of their baby. Birth defects are related to both genetic and environmental factors. A genetics professional can help if a birth defect is detected during a pregnancy.

The Texas Department of State Health Services (DSHS) operates a Teratogen Information Service to assist Texans in determining if a drug or environmental exposure could affect their pregnancy. A teratogen is defined as any medication, chemical, infectious disease or environmental exposure that could affect the development of a fetus.

Genetic services are important for newborns. All babies in Texas are tested at birth for certain rare disorders, hearing screening, and critical congenital heart disease. Newborn screening is a powerful tool for the early identification and treatment of certain disorders. In the United States, it is estimated that 3 to 5 percent of all babies are born with a genetic condition, birth defect or intellectual disability. Five to ten percent of all children have learning or intellectualdisabilities. Genetic factors play a role in many forms of intellectual disabilities. If the exact cause of the intellectual disability can be determined, it could change the medical management of the child.

Genetic services have evolved into testing adults for a genetic predisposition for such disorders as cancer and heart disease. Understanding the genetic causes of disease can help to develop better prevention and treatment strategies. Knowing your genetic health history can allow your physician to see the bigger picture.

It is important for all Texans to know their family medical history. Many health conditions run in families because families live in the same environment, share the same habits, lifestyles and genes.

The U.S. Surgeon General encourages all families to learn more about their health history. A computer tool, called My Family Health Portrait has been developed to help families record their family tree and medical history.

Texas Department of State Health Services Genetic ServicesNewborn Screening Unit Mail Code 1918PO Box 149347, Austin, Texas 78714-93471100 West 49th Street, Austin, Texas 78756-3199Phone: 1-800-252-8023Fax: 512-776-7593Email: newborn@dshs.state.tx.us

External links to other sites are intended to be informational and do not have the endorsement of the Texas Department of State Health Services. These sites also may not be accessible to people with disabilities.

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Genetics

This blog presents several additional points to support the notion that Neanderthal is antediluvian man, i.e. those who lived before the Biblical flood. In 2012, we presented evidence, based on partial mitochondrial DNA sequences, that Neanderthal is indeed our direct, antediluvian ancestor 1. We now have more evidence that solidifies our position. When Neanderthal fossils were discovered in the mid-1800s, Neanderthals were portrayed as ignorant ape-men, but now with the advent of DNA sequencing, they are being portrayed quite differently. More and more they are being portrayed as fully human like us. They are seizing their rightful position in the history of man: our direct line ancestors: the sons and daughters of Adam who lived before the global flood. The following points should be considered in defense of our stance:

Human Speech

It has been found that the human variation of the FOXP2 gene is present in Neanderthal.2 This FOXP2 gene found in Neanderthal is identical to that of humans living today; this is significant in that FOXP2 plays a major role in human speech 3, separating us from the animal kingdom. This finding coupled with the fact that Neanderthals had brains larger than present-day humans4 could suggest that they were more articulate than we.

Genetic Similarity The present-day human and Neanderthal genomes appear to be at least 99.5% identical 5. This difference is statistically the same as some of the latest estimates of genetic differences within the present-day human genome (99.5%) 6. Clearly Neanderthal is fully human; however, since his DNA markers do not exactly align with any present-day family groups or any post-flood family groups, he must be placed as antediluvian man, our pre-flood ancestor. Note: these DNA markers (single nucleotide polymorphism-SNPs) constitute only 0.3% of the human genome 7 and are useful in determining parentage.

Y-chromosome and mitochondrial sequences

To better understand how the mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal DNA supports our position, consider our version of the human family tree:

Figure 1. Human Family Tree

The family tree above shows that the roots of the tree represent the Neanderthals; the stump represents Noah and his family; and the branches and leaves represent us, the present day nations and family groups. The trunk of the tree represents the genetic reset performed by God during or just after the flood; this reset set in motion human DNA compatible with the new ecosystem and lifespan 11. Neanderthal fossils have been found in France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Croatia, Russia, Siberia, Iraq, Israel, Belgium, and Uzbekistan. These Neanderthals are all offspring of Adam and Eve. The Neanderthals died in the flood with the exception of Noah and his family. Since the post-flood ecosystem and human lifespan were much different than the original ecosystem and lifespan, God performed a genetic reset preparing humanity for the new environment and lifespan. One would expect that human DNA sequences prior to Noah and his family would be very similar, but not align exactly with any post-flood nation or family group. And they dont.

A portion of Y-chromosome data has been extracted from Neanderthal fossils. As expected, these sequences do not align exactly with any modern man Y-chromosome nation or family group 8. If they did, one would conclude that Neanderthal was post-flood. But they do not, and, therefore, must be the root. This is a very significant finding for which we have been anxiously waiting. Now, we know that, like the mitochondrial DNA, Y-chromosomal DNA shows that Neanderthals are fully human but are the roots of the tree, not the branches and leaves.

Also, now that we have the full mitochondrial sequences, we find that they, like the Y-chromosome sequences, support our original conclusions: Neanderthal is antediluvian man.

Ruddy/Rosy Complexion

We, at Genesis and Genetics, have concluded that Adam and Eve had red hair and rosy complexions. This conclusion was reached due to the fact that God gave Adam his name which means red. The accompanying rosy complexion is compatible with the pre-flood atmosphere. Just lately, using advanced sequencing tools, scientists have found that two Neanderthal fossils had genes for red hair and ruddy complexions 9. It is difficult to find Neanderthal DNA with these genes intact, so, as far as I know, these are the only two tested for red hair and rosy complexions. It is also, noteworthy that these Neanderthals came from two different locations: one from Spain and the other from Italy. Our model predicts that Neanderthal would, like Adam and Eve, require complexions compatible with the pre-flood atmosphere.

Cannibalism

A recent excavation of a site in Belgium has added evidence to the existing view that Neanderthals were sometimes cannibals 10. There are accounts of modern human acts of cannibalism; however, they overwhelmingly occur when humans are forced to choose between cannibalism and starvation. During the flood, the Bible implies that all humanity didnt die at once, and some could have survived for many months in the water (Genesis 7:19-24). The Neanderthal, being very intelligent, would be in boats, on rafts, or clinging to the large floating mats of debris; but faced with starvation they may very well have resorted to cannibalism. The caves, being the flood drainage pipes, would and do harbor the evidence of this cannibalism.

Summary

Evidence continues to accumulate that Neanderthals were the offspring of Adam and Eve, and our pre-Noah ancestors. Our version of the human family tree is presented above; had it not been for Adams sin, it would look quite different; but Adam did sin and Noah found grace in the eyes of the Creator, thereby forming the bottleneck (family tree stump). Then God chose to make changes in human physiology, including reduced lifespan, all of which required a genetic reset (the trunk of the family tree). Here is a summary of the additional evidence for our version of the family tree:

(1) Neanderthal has the FOXP2 gene identical to present-day humans indicating that they had human speech capabilities.

(2) Neanderthal DNA signature is incongruous with any modern nation or family group. This is true for both Mitochondrial DNA (inherited from the mother) and Y-Chromosome DNA (inherited from the father). The only place available for Neanderthal on the family tree is the roots, our roots.

(3) Neanderthal fossils show evidence of cannibalism. Human cannibalism has a history of occurring primarily when there is some catastrophic event which deprives them of food.

(4) The Neanderthal DNA, so far tested, show evidence of red hair and ruddy complexions which would be compatible with the pre-flood atmosphere and the name God gave Adam.

(5) The similarities of the present-day human and Neanderthal DNA coupled with the fact that they each have unique DNA markers, positions Neanderthal correctly in Biblical history as antediluvian man.

Note: Our former work and evidence can be found here for the blog http://www.genesisandgenetics.org/2013/11/08/177/ and here for the technical paper http://www.genesisandgenetics.org/Neanderthal_Identity.pdf

We will keep you posted as we find more evidence for our position. We do have more compelling evidence for our model which concerns Neanderthal and carbon dating. This will be published soon. You may subscribe here if you would like to be on our mailing list.

Keywords: antediluvian, pre-flood man, Neanderthal, Neanderthals place in human history, Biblical Neanderthal, Neanderthal Bible, Bible Neanderthal, Neanderthal in the Bible

References:

(1) http://www.genesisandgenetics.org/Neanderthal_Identity.pdf

(2) http://www.nature.com/news/2007/071018/full/news.2007.177.html

(3) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/93986

(4) http://www.pnas.org/content/105/37/13764.abstract

(5) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2583069/

(6) journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.0050254

(7) https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/genomicresearch/snp

(8) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27058445

(9) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17962522

(10) https://www.nature.com/articles/srep29005

(11) http://www.genesisandgenetics.org/2016/11/03/divine-genetic-resets/

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