Category Archives: South Dakota Stem Cells

Since 2020, the most common way to terminate a pregnancy in the United States is with medications rather than via a surgical procedure, according to the Guttmacher Institute. This trend has further accelerated since the COVID-19 pandemic and the growing number of restrictions on abortion in many states since the June 2022 overturning of Roe v. Wade.

Known as a medication abortion, medical abortion, or the abortion pill, the process typically involves a two-drug combination. Mifepristone, which was approved in 2000 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), stops pregnancy cells from growing and replicating. This pill is followed one or two days later by misoprostol, a drug that brings on heavy cramping that expels the tissue in the uterus.

Medication abortions are extremely safe and effective, says Elisa Wells, MPH, a cofounder of the abortion information website Plan C.

But myths and misconceptions about medication abortions are widespread.

Here are eight incorrect beliefs about the abortion pill, and the accurate facts everyone should know.

When we think of abortion, many of us visualize a surgical or procedural abortion, which is done in a sterile clinical setting.

A surgical abortion, per MedlinePlus, generally involves dilating the opening of the uterus, known as the cervix, and using suction to remove the fetus and other tissue from the pregnancy. Sedative medication is often used to help a person relax during the procedure. After the procedure, medicines may be given to contract the uterus and stem bleeding, along with an antibiotic to reduce infection risks.

This was once the most popular method of abortions, but in 2020 medication abortions surpassed surgical procedures for the first time, according to theGuttmacher Institute. This represents a significant increase from the groups prior research, when medical abortions accounted for 39 percent, in 2017.

This trend toward more medical abortions further increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, when surgical procedures were limited or delayed and people began looking for other options.

Medication abortion has proven to be overwhelmingly effective as well as safe during the two decades it has been in use. When the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conducted a comprehensive review of the science of abortion care, it concluded that medication abortions effectively end early pregnancies with extremely low rates of serious complications.

According toPlanned Parenthood, the pills are most effective when taken at 8 weeks of pregnancy or earlier. But medication abortion still works more than 90 percent of the time for those 9 to 10 weeks pregnant, and about 87 percent of the time for people up to 11 weeks.

Even when its less effective in these later weeks of the first trimester, people can be given an extra pill, and then the abortion is almost always completed, Planned Parenthood says.

Another option in these rare cases is to follow up with an in-clinic surgical procedure to complete the abortion.

Many people confuse the abortion pill with another medication known as Plan B.

Plan B is what is known as emergency contraception. This medicine is taken soon after youve had unprotected sex to prevent you from getting pregnant.

Plan B consists of a drugstore pill that contains the hormone levonorgestrel, a synthetic progestin similar to the progesterone the body naturally makes to regulate the menstrual cycle. The hormone inhibits or delays ovulation.

Plan B can be used within 72 hours of having sex, saysSherry Ross, MD, a gynecologist and the author of She-ology and She-ology,the She-quel. It is most effective when taken within 24 hours of having sex, she notes.

By contrast, abortion pills work by a completely different mechanism, inhibiting the growth of pregnancy tissue rather than delaying ovulation. One prevents a pregnancy, and the other ends it.

Actually, you may not need to.

First, a doctor does not necessarily have to be involved. Many states allow non-physician medical professionals like physician assistants and advanced practice nurses to prescribe the pills. Some states, though, have laws requiring the person administering medication abortion to be a licensed medical doctor.

Second, during the pandemic, a growing number of telehealth medical abortion providers became available in various states. With telehealth abortions, Plan Cs Wells says, you can have this safe and effective procedure without needing to take time off work, find childcare, and the like.

Telehealth abortions allow for more privacy, since women dont have to go to an abortion clinic or navigate their way past protesters, Wells adds. And in areas of the country that are rural or underserved by providers, telehealth medication abortions can save a patient hundreds of miles of travel, according to the nonprofit Guttmacher Institute.

Plan C lists a number of these telehealth abortion sites that work in various states. They include Hey Jane, Just the Pill, Choix, Forward Midwifery, and Aid Access. You can search which telehealth providers are available in your state on the website of Plan C.

Telehealth abortions were the subject of a study published in August 2021 in Obstetrics & Gynecology. Researchers at the University of California in San Francisco followed 110 Choix telehealth patients and found 95 percent had complete abortions from the pills. The 5 percent who required further medical care is similar to the rate for in-person medical abortions, the study authors note. And no patients reported any adverse events.

Women who get the abortion pills after a telehealth consultation or who order it online take the pills in the comfort of their own home.

Even women who go to an office or clinic for a medication abortion generally take pills at home. They might take the first pill, mifepristone, in the medical setting and take the second medication home with them to take later. Or both drugs might be taken after the patient returns home.

Because it takes a while for the medicines to be effective, a medical abortion is nearly always completed in the persons home or other comfortable location.

That used to be the case, but it isnt any longer.

For a long time, mifepristone was regulated under a special provision of the FDA that required it to be administered in a clinic, hospital, or under the direct supervision of a certified medical provider, known as the in-person dispensing requirement.

This prevented it from being delivered by mail or from being readily available in retail pharmacies.

But during the pandemic the FDA changed this requirement to remove the in-person specification and added a requirement that any dispensing pharmacies must be certified. InDecember of 2021, it made the changes permanent.

Although the FDA cautions people not to buy the drugs over the internet, because you will bypass important safeguards designed to protect your health, many health experts say buying from reputable sites is fine.

The growth of online dispensing pharmacies is allowing a greater number of women to self-manage their abortion, Wells says. They simply order abortion pills directly from certain websites, without a healthcare provider prescribing it.

Plan C lists a number of dispensing pharmacies they believe are safe to order from, which varies by the state you live in. These include Secure Abortion Pills, Abortion Privacy, and Medside 24.

According toPlanned Parenthood, many health insurance plans do, in fact, cover abortions, making the procedure free or low-cost to those with this insurance. (Check with your insurance provider directly to see if your insurance is in this category.) Note that in several states, laws prohibit private insurers from covering abortion.

People on Medicaid may or may not have their abortion pills covered. Some plans in certain states cover abortion, while others dont. Some plans only cover abortion in certain cases, Planned Parenthood advises.

If your insurance wont cover the cost of a medical abortion, which can run hundreds of dollars, you may still be able to get assistance. A number of organizations offer funds to help pay for abortions. You can find some of these groups through the National Network of Abortion Funds.

Medication abortions are always legal in states that have not banned or severely restricted abortions.

In states that do have severe abortion restrictions, determining whether a medical abortion is legal can be complex.

According to theGuttmacher Institute, banning medication abortion outright has been found to be unconstitutional. But it notes that other state-level restrictions have been allowed to go into effect.

For example, South Dakota approved regulations that require patients to make four trips to a clinic in order to obtain a medication abortion, although this was blocked pending the outcome of litigation. Other states have banned the use of telehealth abortions.

Abortion advocates say some women are getting around state bans by having the medications mailed to another state where abortion pills are explicitly legal. This can be a friends address or a general delivery mailbox at a post office in that state, where the person then drives to pick up the pills.

Of course, there is a legal risk of being prosecuted in some states that prohibit medical abortions or the mailing of pills. You can learn more about the possible legal repercussions from the Repro Legal Helpline, a free site designed to educate women about their legal rights in obtaining a desired abortion.

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8 Myths About Medication Abortion and Abortion Pills - Everyday Health

Russ Daly| Special to the Farm Forum

As students filter back to South Dakota State University this week, I harken back to my own days as a student and the courses I took as a pre-veterinary student. Some of the most memorable class experiences were not necessarily the most pleasant ones. Included in that list are the chemistry courses, which always seemed to require an inordinate amount of work.

Five semesters of chemistry are on our pre-vet students list. It starts with inorganic chemistry, progresses through organic chemistry, and ends with biochemistry. As I did back then, current students question the necessity of all this chemistry. After all, what does biochemistry have to do with being a veterinarian and keeping livestock healthy?

The answer, as Ive come to realize, is … everything!

Biochemistry underlies everything we expect from our animals. Reproduction, immunity, milk production, growth:they all rely on a usually-taken-for-granted complex system of nutritional compounds being taken in, broken down, put together, metabolized and utilized by the animal.

Biochemistry class got more interesting after I realized that. Even more interesting was learning animal examples of when this biochemistry gets messed up: acidosis, ketosisand milk fever, for example.

This summer, as in most South Dakota summers, another example of messed-up biochemistry is playing out in some areas: high forage nitrates and their potential to poison cattle.

Nitrate poisoning involves biochemistry problems in plants as well as the animals that consume them. Nitrates might get bad press among cattle producers, but theyre essential.

When moisture is plentiful and growing conditions are good, plants take in nitrogen through their roots in the form of nitrate salts. These compounds are drawn up into the stem and leaves where they serve as building blocks for amino acids, which get tied together to form proteins. Like a refinery where crude oil comes in and gasoline comes out, the plant refines this nitrogen into the protein that will nourish a hungry cow or calf.

But what if, just when this refinery was working at full capacity, the soil around the roots dries up, with insufficient moisture to move the nitrates through the plant tissues? The raw materials (the nitrates) still come in, but theyre not able to be processed into proteins anymore accumulating like crude oil in a refinery holding tank, especially in the lower stalks and stems.

Cattle need nitrogen building blocks for amino acids and proteins, too. Consumed plant proteins are broken down into nitrogen that can be utilized by rumen bugs. They then produce protein for the animals use.

The unprocessed nitrates from stressed plants can serve as a nitrogen source too, but once inside the rumen, they first get converted to a form called nitrites. These nitrites are then absorbed into the bovines bloodstream.

This is not good. Nitrite molecules readily bind to iron in the blood, which is an essential component of oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in the red blood cells. Nitrite blocks this oxygen-carrying capability.

Oxygen breathed in by the cow becomes useless because it can no longer get to the body cells. The animal starts to suffocate from within.

If a person is around to witness it, they might notice the cow becoming anxious, breathing faster and faster, with the heart beating faster and faster in a futile attempt to get oxygen to the bodys cells. In acute nitrate poisonings, this progression is quick enough that animals are simply found dead. A blood sample taken from affected animals looks dark chocolate brown, devoid of the red tint of healthy oxygen-carrying hemoglobin found in a normal animal.

Lower levels of nitrates can cause chronic, non-fatal poisoning problems: miscarriages in pregnant cows, for example. Younger animals show poor growth and performance.

Dry conditions are the typical root cause of nitrate accumulation in plants, some of which are more prone to accumulating nitrates than others. Corn and sorghum have been a frequent source of questions this summer, but oats, wheat, and many other crops and weeds can also be problematic. Nitrate accumulations can be spotty within locales and even individual fields.

SDSU Extension centers can perform rapid tests for nitrates on forage material, or can direct you to labs for more complete analysis. Nitrate testing risky forages can be a pretty cheap insurance policy when the risk of nitrate accumulation exists.

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Animal Health Matters: Nitrates are the toxic side effect of summer - Farm Forum

The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) is the worlds largest multidisciplinary society for the sciences and a leading publisher of research. Each year, the AAAS Council elects Fellows for their research and its applications significant to science and society. In 2021, nine UChicago professors were named AAAS Fellows.

Phoebe A. Rice

Biochemistry and molecular biophysics professor Phoebe A. Rices research focuses on the fundamentals of biochemical systems, specifically how proteins control DNA and mobile genetic elements.

I think weve made a lot of contributions to understanding DNA rearrangement reactions from a very fundamental biochemistry point of viewhow they are orchestrated and controlled, Rice said. For the DNA rearrangement enzymes Im working on now, one of my hopes is that people can use the tools were developing to get microbes to make biofuels, which will be very useful to the planet.

Rice prizes the laboratory work involved in her research. I find [the laboratory work] amazingit shows the intricacies of how Mother Nature pulls things off, Rice said. To some degree, I view it almost as art. Its showing people how beautiful nature is even at the tiny level.

In the study of protein structures, there has been a recent revolution in artificial intelligence methods. Within the last year, artificial intelligence methods have gotten very good at looking at enormous databases of protein structures and sequences and then taking a new sequence and guessing the structure, Rice said. We can make predictions that give you testable hypotheseswithout even having to lift a pipette.

Amanda Woodward

Amanda Woodward, Dean of the Division of the Social Sciences and the William S. Gray Distinguished Service Professor of Psychology, is a founding member of UChicagos Center for Early Childhood Research. As a developmental psychologist, Woodward studies how infants make sense of other people's actions and interactions. Human beings are really intensely social species, Woodward said. So understanding who we are as thinkers, reasoners, and learners sort of depends on understanding how we react to the social context.

Woodwards most highly cited paper was published in 1998; it details her discovery that infants are able to recognize the difference between object and human movements and see the latter as goal-directed. It established a whole program of research in my lab and also inspired a lot of research around the world, Woodward said.

This was followed by another discovery that babies reasoning about other peoples behavior is directly connected with their motor development. Woodwards lab found that the babys own ability to use tools predicted how they were going to reason about other peoples actions and abilities.

During my lifetime, there have been really important discoveries in this field that have shaped what we know about the human mind and its development, so that makes it exciting to be in science and part of that discovery process. Thats what motivates my work, Woodward said.

Yoav Gilad

Professor of Medicine Yoav Gilad focuses on functional genomics, analyzing phenotypes at the molecular level to better understand clinically relevant differences between people.

One of the current projects that his lab is working on involves developing a new cell culture model using an in vitro system, which will allow them to characterize environmental interactions with human genomes during early development. If we're correct about the potential of this new system, then I believe that it can truly change the amount of insight we can have into patients' risk and response to medication, Gilad said. It can even help with developing new medicine by testing it much more rapidly in the lab before going through testing phases.

Gilads interest in this area was largely inspired by his study of olfaction while in pursuit of his doctorate degree. Through my work on olfaction, I became very interested not just in the different ways that we can smell things, but just in general the relationship between genes, environment, and our phenotypic differences, Gilad said. Over the last decade or so, I became interested in how we can use these tools to actually make an impact in the health system and in the clinic.

One of the most significant discoveries made by Gilad and his lab has been in the area of gene regulation and variation, where they produced one of the first maps to track rotary mechanisms. Another significant discovery comes from Gilads work in comparative genomics; Gilad and his team established the first panel of chimpanzee stem cells, which they now freely share with other scientists. I'm very proud that there are dozens of papers that are not from our lab, but use our cells, the resources that we developed, to really enhance that field, Gilad said.

Michael Coates

Michael Coates is a Professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy whose research focuses on early vertebrate diversity and evolution. He is most interested in discovering morphology, the origin and form that underlies vertebrate body parts, using fossils to look at the early radiation of modern vertebrate groups. Coates works primarily with fish, and collaborates closely with fish labs that look at the developmental biology side of fish.

One of Coatess biggest accomplishments was discovering the earliest limbs with digits in his postdoctoral work. Coates and his colleagues found that the number of digits varied, as opposed to the widely accepted standard number of five digits. Although Coates has made several discoveries and contributions to the field of morphology, he continues to be fascinated by fundamental questions regarding the genetic path to morphology and what this means in the context of how genes and development have changed throughout time, as well as how this process has been shaped by the history of the planet. It's clear that there are big, big gaps in the early record of vertebrate life. I'd love to see those filled, and we have gotten better tools for this imaging and making sense of it.

Jeanne C. Marsh

Jeanne C. Marsh is the George Herbert Jones Distinguished Service Professor in the Crown Family School of Social Work, Policy, and Practice and the Director of the Center for Health Administration Studies. Marshs work focuses on health services research that looks at the integration of health and social services.

Currently, Marsh is focusing on the health disparities area; her team is studying the impact of substance abuse treatment on client functioning, specifically in women and children. One of the studies that she is leading is a study in Los Angeles County on the opioid epidemic. They are looking closely at not only gender disparities, but also race and ethnic disparities and how they can help improve access to treatment for these marginalized populations.

I think one hallmark of my work is a sense that we really need to do whatever data collection is necessary to hear directly from the people who are in the real world experiencing these issues, Marsh said. It isn't good enough just to pick up a big data set and run some analysis, it's really important to get the perspective of the people who are engaged in the process, who may be receiving the services.

One of the most significant parts of Marshs research has been becoming increasingly aware of health disparities which stem from broader social inequities. Findings from my research show that targeting health and social services to specific client needs significantly improves their health and social functioning, Marsh said. I bring a social work perspective to this research indicating that asking clients what health and social services they need and then providing them improves client outcome and satisfaction when compared to alternative approaches.

Marsh is also taking part in a new project that involves faculty members from both the Department of Medicine and the Crown Family School. They are primarily interested in health care for the disadvantaged, specifically in Medicare and Medicaid data. That's really the exciting part about science, when you can work together with really smart people in the process of discovery, addressing whatever your curiosity might be.

Maria-Luisa Alegre

Professor of Medicine Maria-Luisa Alegres research focuses on the molecular mechanisms involved in organ transplants. One area is centered around tolerance, while the other is centered on studying the impact of different environmental factors, specifically microbiota.

Currently, Alegre and her team are working with mice to explore how the immune response is altered by the gut microbiota. Their goal is to answer the question of how the microbiota that colonizes the transplanted organ itself influences the immune response to that organ and the commensals that colonize the organ. They are also working on figuring out what components of the immune system are being awakened to reject the organ when challenges that can threaten tolerance arise, such as severe infections.

Her goal for her research ultimately goes back to making an impact in the clinic. We would like to get to a point where we understand the mechanisms that underlie transplantation tolerance well enough that we could translate that into the clinic and be able to follow and monitor the cells of patients who are transplanted, Alegre said.

Edward Blucher

Edward Blucher is a Professor of Physics whose research focuses on particle physics. His studies center around exploring the imbalance that built up in the first millionth of a second or so during the Big Bang. Almost everything I have been studying is broadly connected by one big physics question, which is trying to better understand what happened early in the universe between matter and antimatter.

One of Bluchers most significant discoveries was on symmetry violation. We were looking for a very particular kind of violation in the way that a kaon decayed. In 1999, we finally found that this symmetry violation existed. It was very exciting because this was the kind of thing that would be needed for the universe to evolve the way it had existed in nature, Blucher said.

Blucher then developed an interest in neutrinos and their role in how the universe evolved to be imbalanced in matter and antimatter, and this is when DUNE was started. DUNE is an experiment that involved about 1400 physicists from 35 countries. It focused on looking for a violation of this matter and antimatter asymmetry in neutrinos by sending a beam of particles of neutrinos from Fermilab all the way to South Dakota.

Blucher is now working on an experiment that is also deep underground in a mine in northern Ontario that is looking at a rare type of nuclear decay. I think that asking about asymmetry is just a fascinating question, because it's something that we wouldn't be here without, Blucher said. It's a question that's really connected with how matter exists at all.

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2021 AAAS Fellows Share Their Experience in Scientific Research - The Chicago Maroon

Investors sentiment decreased to 1.4 in Q2 2019. Its down 0.37, from 1.77 in 2019Q1. It turned negative, as 16 investors sold Anika Therapeutics, Inc. shares while 42 reduced holdings. 35 funds opened positions while 46 raised stakes. 13.49 million shares or 3.81% more from 13.00 million shares in 2019Q1 were reported.Moreover, South Dakota Council has 0.05% invested in Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ:ANIK). 218,686 are held by Geode Cap Mgmt. Nelson Van Denburg And Campbell Wealth Group Ltd accumulated 13,306 shares or 0.1% of the stock. Oaktop Ii Lp owns 12,500 shares or 0.11% of their US portfolio. Thrivent For Lutherans holds 0% or 11,149 shares. 5,435 are owned by Jefferies Gru Limited Liability Corporation. Everence Cap Mngmt Incorporated accumulated 0.04% or 6,520 shares. Moreover, Deutsche Bank & Trust Ag has 0% invested in Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ:ANIK). Aqr Limited Com reported 6,013 shares stake. Glenmede Co Na holds 54 shares. The Illinois-based Nuveen Asset Mgmt Llc has invested 0% in Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ:ANIK). State Board Of Administration Of Florida Retirement owns 11,873 shares. Mark Sheptoff Finance Planning Ltd Limited Liability Company, a Connecticut-based fund reported 300 shares. Voloridge Invest Management Ltd holds 0.01% or 6,610 shares. Foundry Prtnrs Lc accumulated 0.09% or 54,915 shares.

The stock of Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ:ANIK) is a huge mover today! The stock increased 32.45% or $17.61 during the last trading session, reaching $71.88. About 498,503 shares traded or 144.39% up from the average. Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ:ANIK) has risen 39.72% since October 25, 2018 and is uptrending. It has outperformed by 39.72% the S&P500.The move comes after 6 months positive chart setup for the $990.72M company. It was reported on Oct, 25 by Barchart.com. We have $78.35 PT which if reached, will make NASDAQ:ANIK worth $89.16 million more.

More notable recent Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ:ANIK) news were published by: Benzinga.com which released: 42 Stocks Moving In Tuesdays Pre-Market Session Benzinga on July 30, 2019, also Seekingalpha.com with their article: Anika up 35% after Q2 beat Seeking Alpha published on July 25, 2019, Seekingalpha.com published: Pluristem Therapeutics and EDAP TMS among healthcare gainers; Align Technology among losers Seeking Alpha on July 25, 2019. More interesting news about Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ:ANIK) were released by: Benzinga.com and their article: The Daily Biotech Pulse: Setback For Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gemphire Explodes, Lillys Nasal Low Blood Sugar Drug Benzinga published on July 25, 2019 as well as Finance.Yahoo.coms news article titled: Heres What Anika Therapeutics, Inc.s (NASDAQ:ANIK) P/E Is Telling Us Yahoo Finance with publication date: August 23, 2019.

Anika Therapeutics, Inc., together with its subsidiaries, provides orthopedic medicines for patients with degenerative orthopedic diseases and traumatic conditions in the United States and internationally. The company has market cap of $990.72 million. The firm develops, makes, and commercializes therapeutic products based on its proprietary hyaluronic acid technology. It has a 35.24 P/E ratio. The Companys orthobiologics products comprise ORTHOVISC, ORTHOVISC mini, MONOVISC, and CINGAL for the treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee; HYALOFAST, a biodegradable support for human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells used for cartilage regeneration and as an adjunct for microfracture surgery; HYALONECT, a woven gauze used as a bone graft wrap; HYALOSS used to mix blood/bone grafts to form a paste for bone regeneration; and HYALOGLIDE, an ACP gel used in tenolysis treatment.

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Anika Therapeutics, Inc. (ANIK)'s Stock Is Buy After Today's Significant Increase - The Lamp News

Dec. 21, 2018

This paid piece is sponsored by South Dakota Biotech.

Sanford Research has hit a key milestone in its efforts to gain FDA approval for ground-breaking use of stem cells in orthopedics and is already pursuing new trials to broaden its efforts.

Early data has been released showing that the first patients who were part of a clinical trial using adipose-derived stem cells to treat rotator cuff tears had no harmful effects from the treatment.

We know all our patients were safe, but a significant amount of our patients also had pain relief and some function relief, said Tiffany Facile, Sanfords director of regenerative medicine.

That really contributes to the next phase.

The next step a phase two trial that is intended to show the treatments efficacy will include about 200 patients at 10 sites, starting in early 2019.

That study duration is about a year, Facile said.

Sanford has worked in partnership with a hospital in Munich, Germany, for years as the treatment was pioneered and offered to patients there. So while the results in the U.S. are welcomed, theyre not entirely surprising, she said.

We know from patients in Munich that there is relief. This is a confirmation of what we knew, but theres additional excitement because this could provide another treatment option for patients here, and it means a lot to me to be able to tell that to patients.

At the same time, Sanford is working through studies using adipose-derived stem cells to treat osteoarthritis in the wrist and in the back. Like the rotator cuff study, researchers have started by testing for safety and will follow with a trial for efficacy.

Sanford Health is well connected nationally and internationally in the regenerative medicine world, Facile said. I think because we have set the standard and maintained a great relationship with the FDA, we will continue to lead in this space.

Facile and David Pearce, executive vice president of innovation and research, will present in early 2019 at the World Stem Cell Summit in Miami, which features global leaders in the stem cell and regenerative medicine community.

Sanford is really trying to lead and be a good mentor for others to work with the FDA, Facile said. We can do it. We can do it the right way, but you just have to trust in the science and have science in the clinical application. We are sharing our story about how it can be done in the best way, and its an extreme honor.

Sanfords leadership in regenerative medicine is a huge asset in growing South Dakotas visibility within the bioscience industry, saidJoni Johnson, executive director of South Dakota Biotech.

This sort of activity in clinical trials is so exciting for our state, Johnson said. It broadens our relationships, leads to additional collaboration and helps continue to attract the sort of research talent that is lifting up our entire bioscience economy.

Sanfords success in pursuing stem cell clinical trials has bolstered its ability to recruit and collaborate, Facile agreed.

Its exciting. This is a competitive field, and were meeting with scientists nationally who are looking for clinical sites to conduct their studies, and Sanford is that place. Thats Sanford. So it gets me excited, and the fact that were following the FDA and bringing this treatment to patients in the right way is so important to take into consideration. Its the right thing for the patient.

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Sanford stem cell trial crosses key threshold in offering ...

The most common and accepted use of stem cells in medicine is a bone marrow transplant in which physicians attempt to change a patients blood cells from one type to another. In the case of cancers like leukemia or diseases like sickle-cell anemia, the transplant aims to erase all the diseased cells and replace them with a new line of blood-type cells derived from donor stem cells. The process itself is painful and has variable success rates, but when it works patients can be cured.

The Fountain of Youth drove explorer Ponce de Leon to the discovery of new worlds, and this mythical fascination with renewal pre-dates the Ancient Greeks. Today, promise lies in small cells called stem cells that have the ability to self-renew and transform into cells of differing types. The International Society for Cellular Therapy has defined stem cells by the following criteria: (i) they are adherent to plastic material in the laboratory, (ii) they express specific proteins on their outer surface much like you have unique traits that identify your heritage, and (iii) these cells can be directed to transform into bone cells, fat cells, cartilage cells, etc. The potential to form new organs and to revitalize aged tissues are the reasons that stem cells are researched so intensely and need to be scrutinized carefully. Stem cells can be harvested from an embryo or an adult. Embryonic stem cells are removed in utero from a fertilized egg and these cells have the greatest potential; however, their acquisition is controversial and their use highly regulated. Adults have an abundant supply of stem cells originating from blood and tissues. Cord blood is a commonly harvested source of adult stem cells originating from the blood stream (hematopoietic stem cells).

In addition, stem cells are found in your fat, bones and cartilage to name a few sites. These cells are called mesenchymal stem cells and they differ from hematopoietic stem cells in the markers expressed on their surface. Differing stem cells appear primed to better renew differing tissues, and the key is determining the correct factors that drive these cells to become a certain tissue type. So far, there is much promise and a few successes utilizing stem cells to treat diseases. In addition to the bone marrow transplant, many clinical trials and experimental studies are underway attempting to harness the potential of stem cells. The few mentioned here are only the tip of a large and growing iceberg.

During a heart attack the muscle cells within the heart die and are replaced by scar tissue. Your heart then changes shape and size in an attempt to successfully pump blood again; however, it rarely recovers the same capacity it had before the attack. Current therapies aim to prevent a future attack; however, physicians in Europe are using stem cells retrieved from patients bone marrow to regenerate muscle in the scarred areas. The early results have shown a modest gain in muscle cells and function. Long-standing wounds from trauma, diabetes or venous insufficiency are a serious problem and can take up to years to heal, sometimes never closing at all. Recent studies using stem cells in fat taken from liposuction specimens have shown improved healing rates and new blood vessel formation in problem wounds. In our own lab at Emory University, we have shown a four-fold increase in blood vessel formation with the addition of these stem cells. The next step is to apply these techniques to improve the quality of damaged skin and organs.

The notions that paralyzed patients can walk again and that kidneys can be built in the lab are the reasons the U.S. government has invested heavily over the last decade in stem cell research. They are also the reasons that many companies and even physicians have licensed and marketed the promise of these cells without ensuring the efficacy. We have the basic building blocks, but directing these cells to become complete organs or prevent cancer is beyond our current knowledge. You should be excited at the future potential, but be cautious about current promises that appear too good to be true.

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Stem Cells in Medicine | Rapid City, South Dakota 57701

by Mary West

Potent cancer-fighters are hidden within the leaves, stalks, husks and stems of cruciferous vegetables like watercress and broccoli.

A study shows a compound and enzyme found in these foods can kill cancer stem cells, which is a discovery that could help prevent the re-occurrence and spread of some malignancies.

According to lead author Moul Dey, cancer stem cells present quite a danger. They are resistant to chemotherapy and radiation, so they continue to live in the body after such traditional treatments. While the stem cells only comprise about 5 percent of a cancerous tumor, they act like a ticking time bomb. These tiny cells are very difficult to detect in a tumor, she says. Its like finding a needle in a haystack. Consequently, they can migrate through the blood vessels, thus causing the cancer to metastasize.

When cruciferous vegetables are eaten, a compound and enzyme combine during the chewing process to form phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC). Scientists at South Dakota State University tested the effects of this substance, known as PEITC, on human cancer stem cells in a Petri dish. The results were impressive, as 75 percent of the cells died within 24 hours. Even low concentrations of it proved effective. This finding builds upon previous research that reveals the anti-cancer properties of similar foods.

When a tumor outgrows its blood supply, it sends a sign to surrounding tissues to deliver more nutrients and oxygen. Prior studies show PEITC switches off this sign.

Cruciferous vegetables include watercress, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, radishes, arugula, bok choy, kale, turnips and rutabaga. The researchers found concentrations of PEITC were particularly present in land and watercress. If you want to ingest the amount of PEITC used in the research, eat a diet rich in these vegetables, especially watercress.

A study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found a daily serving of watercress can significantly curtail DNA damage to blood cells, a problem thought to be a major trigger of cancer. In addition, the vegetable boosted the ability of the cells to resist further harm perpetrated by free radicals. This study is one within a body of accumulating research that indicates watercress may reduce the risk of colon, breast and prostate cancer.

Live in the Now consulted Sylvia Melndez-Klinger, registered dietitian and leading expert in cross-cultural Hispanic cuisine as it relates to health. She shared the recipe below that combines two extraordinarily healthful foods: watercress and fatty fish. Everyone should aim to eat 2 to 3 servings of fish, especially those high in omega-3 fatty acids, each week to reap the benefits that include cognitive function, heart health and more, she says.

Tarragon Tuna Watercress Salad

1/2 cup reduced fat mayonnaise 1/4 cup low fat sour cream 1/4 cup fresh tarragon, chopped or 2 teaspoons dried 1 teaspoon grated lemon zest plus 1 tablespoon fresh lemon juice 2 5-ounce cans solid white albacore tuna fish in water, drained 2 green onions, sliced 2 celery stalks, sliced ground pepper to taste 1 pound watercress, thick stems removed

In a medium bowl, mix together the mayonnaise, sour cream, tarragon, lemon zest and juice. Gently fold in tuna fish, green onions, and celery. Season with pepper and serve over the watercress.Makes: 4 servings

Sources:https://www.yahoo.com/health/broccoli-watercress-may-hold-potent-118305401687.htmlhttp://news.therawfoodworld.com/how-to-kill-cancer-stem-cells/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/63314.phphttp://naturalsociety.com/watercress-block-breast-cancer-cell-growth/

Mary West is a natural health enthusiast, as she believes this area can profoundly enhance wellness. She is the creator of a natural healing website where she focuses on solutions to health problems that work without side effects. You can visit her site and learn more at http://www.alternativemedicinetruth.com. Ms. West is also the author of Fight Cancer Through Powerful Natural Strategies.

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75% of Cancer Stem Cells Died When Attacked By Compound in ...

Harmful experimentation on embryos is a felony in some states

Some members of Congress think that researchers should be able to obtain and destroy live human embryos for federally funded stem cell research. But such destruction of embryos for research seems to be illegal (regardless of its source of funding) in nine states. Therefore proposals for federal funding would force many taxpayers to approve destructive cell harvesting that is a felony in their home state.

Louisiana

Louisiana's law recognizes a human embryo outside the womb as a "juridical person," and prohibits the destruction of a viable fertilized ovum. La. Rev. Stat. tit. 9, 123, 129 (West 2000). It further states: "The use of a human ovum fertilized in vitro is solely for the support and contribution of the complete development of human in utero implantation. No in vitro fertilized human ovum will be farmed or cultured solely for research purposes or any other purposes." 122.

Maine

Maine's law prohibits the "use [of]...any live human fetus, whether intrauterine or extrauterine...for scientific experimentation or for any form of experimentation." Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 22 1593 (West 1992). A legal analysis commissioned by the National Bioethics Advisory Commission concluded that this law "ban[s] research on in vitro embryos altogether." NBAC, Ethical Issues in Human Stem Cell Research, vol. II, pages A-4, A-10.

Massachusetts

Massachusetts law prohibits "use [of] any live human fetus whether before or after expulsion from its mother's womb, for scientific, laboratory, research or other kind of experimentation." Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 112 12 J (a) I (West 1996). The section goes on to define "fetus" as including "an embryo." Ch. 112 12 (J) (a) IV.

Michigan

Michigan's law provides that "[a] person shall not use a live human embryo...for nontherapeutic research if...the research substantially jeopardizes the life or health of the embryo..." Mich. Comp. Laws 333.2685 (1) (West 1992). Performing such experimentation is a felony. 333.2691.

Minnesota

Minnesota's law prohibits using or permitting the use of "a living human conceptus for any type of scientific, laboratory research or other experimentation except to protect the life or health of the conceptus..." Min. Stat. 145.422 (West 1998). "Human conceptus" means "any human organism, conceived either in the human body or produced in an artificial environment other than the human body, from fertilization through the first 265 days thereafter." 145.421.

North Dakota

North Dakota law provides: "A person may not use any live human fetus, whether before or after expulsion from its mother's womb, for scientific, laboratory, research, or other kind of experimentation." N.D. Cent. Code 14-02.2-01(1) (Michie 1997). A legal analysis commissioned by the National Bioethics Advisory Commission concluded that this law "would ban embryo stem cell research using either IVF embryos or aborted conceptuses." NBAC, Ethical Issues in Human Stem Cell Research, vol. II, page A-4.

Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania's law prohibits "knowingly perform[ing] any type of nontherapeutic experimentation or nontherapeutic medical procedure... upon any unborn child..." Pa. Cons. Stat. tit 18. 3216 (a) (West 2000). Performing such experimentation is a felony. Id. "Unborn child" means "an individual organism of the species homo sapiens from fertilization until live birth." 3203.

Rhode Island

Rhode Island prohibits the use of "any live human fetus, whether before or after expulsion from its mother's womb, for scientific, laboratory research, or other kind of experimentation." R.I. Gen. Laws 11-54-1(a) (Michie 2000). A legal analysis commissioned by the National Bioethics Advisory Commission concluded that this law "ban[s] research on in vitro embryos altogether." NBAC, Ethical Issues in Human Stem Cell Research, vol. II, pages A-4, A-10.

South Dakota

Under a South Dakota law enacted in 2000, it is a crime to "conduct nontherapeutic research that destroys a human embryo," or to "conduct nontherapeutic research that subjects a human embryo to substantial risk of injury or death." S.D. Codified Laws 34-14-16, 34-14-17 (Michie Supp. 2001). It is also unlawful to "use for research purposes cells or tissues that [a] person knows were obtained" by doing such harm to embryos. 34-14-18. "Human embryo" means a living organism of the species Homo sapiens at the earliest stages of development (including the single-celled stage) that is not located in a woman's body." 34-14-20. Thus this law bans not only the destruction of the embryo to obtain stem cells (regardless of the source of funding), but also research using the resulting cells (regardless of whether the cells were harvested in that state or elsewhere).

Read this article:
Current State Laws Against Human Embryo Research

When you or a loved one battle aplastic anemia, leukemia, lymphoma (Hodgkins and non-Hodgkins), multiple myeloma or myelodysplastic syndrome, rebuild your immune system with an infusion of healthy stem cells through a blood and marrow transplant (BMT) at the Avera Cancer Institute Sioux Falls in conjunction with the Avera Transplant Institute the regions only blood and marrow transplant program.

After high intensity chemotherapy or radiation therapy kills cancer cells, transplanting healthy blood and marrow cells helps fight disease.

Let Averas expert team offer guidance about the value of blood and marrow transplant for your specific situation. If youre eligible, theyll help you explore transplant options and identify the best ones for you. Approaches include:

The Avera Cancer Institute in conjunction with the Avera Transplant Institute is a designated Transplant Center by the National Marrow Donor Program. This means you gain access to a worldwide listing of potential blood and marrow donors, which may widen your options and speed your treatment.

Find the support you need through a BMT Connections support group. Whether youre a blood and marrow transplant patient or loved one, join us before, during and after the transplant procedure for discussion and encouragement.

Learn more about blood and marrow transplant services at Avera, including the latest news and patient and provider features in the Avera Transplant Institutes Blood and Marrow Transplant newsletter.

Help meet the need for healthy stem cells by becoming a blood and marrow donor. Avera McKennan Hospital & University Health Center is the only National Marrow Donor Program-approved apheresis stem cell collection center in South Dakota.

Each year, thousands of Americans are diagnosed with life-threatening diseases such as leukemia or lymphoma, for which a blood and marrow transplant may be the best and only hope for a cure. However, only 30 percent of people will find a suitable donor within their family. For the remaining 70 percent, an unrelated donor with a matching tissue type must be found.

To get started or find more information, visit Be The Match.

Continue reading here:
Blood and Marrow Transplant - avera.org

Schumann, G.L. and K.J. Leonard. 2000. Stem rust of wheat (black rust). The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2000-0721-01 Updated 2011.

DISEASE:Stem rust (black rust)

PATHOGEN:Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici

HOSTS:Wheat and barley, common barberry (and some additional Berberis, Mahoberberis, and Mahonia spp.)

Authors Gail L. Schumann, University of Massachusetts, Amherst Kurt J. Leonard, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Cereal Disease Lab, St. Paul, MN

Stem rust was once the most feared disease of cereal crops. It is not as damaging now due to the development of resistant cultivars, but outbreaks may occur when new pathogen races arise against which the existing kinds of resistance are ineffective. Stem rust remains an important threat to wheat and barley and, thus, to the world food supply. Anton deBary first demonstrated the heteroecious life cycle of a rust fungus with Puccinia graminis, the causal agent of stem rust.

On wheat and other grass hosts: Plants do not usually show obvious disease symptoms until 7 to 15 days after infection when the oval pustules (uredinia) of powdery, brick-red urediniospores break through the epidermis (Figures 1, 2). Microscopically, these red spores are covered with fine spines (Figures 3, 4). The pustules may be abundant and produced on both leaf surfaces and stems of grass hosts. Later in the season, pustules (telia) of black teliospores begin to appear in infected grass species (Figure 5). Microscopically, teliospores are two celled and thick walled (Figure 6).

On barberry and other alternate hosts: Pycnia appear on barberry plants (Figure 7) in the spring, usually in the upper leaf surfaces. They are often in small clusters and exude pycniospores in a sticky honeydew (Figure 8). Five to 10 days later, cup-shaped structures filled with orange-yellow, powdery aeciospores break through the lower leaf surface (Figure 9). The aecial cups are yellow and sometimes elongate to extend up to 5 mm from the leaf surface (Figure 10). Microscopically, aeciospores have a slightly warty surface (Figure 11).

Rust fungi are obligate parasites. In nature, they require living host tissue for growth and reproduction; they cannot exist as saprophytes. In the absence of living host tissue, they survive as spores. In most rust fungi, only the teliospores are adapted to survive apart from a living host plant for more than a few months under field conditions.

Puccinia graminis is heteroecious. This word describes rust fungi that require two unrelated host plants, such as wheat and barberry, to complete their life cycle. Puccinia graminis is macrocyclic, producing all five spore stages: basidiospores, pycniospores (spermatia), aeciospores, urediniospores (uredospores), and teliospores. Anton deBary, in 1865, first recognized the nature of the heteroecious life cycle, but the role of each spore stage was not completely understood until John Craigie, a Canadian scientist, studied the pathogen in 1927.

Although stem rust is caused by a single species of fungus, Puccinia graminis, there is considerable genetic variation within the species. In 1884, Eriksson discovered host-specific subspecies or "special forms" of the fungus. Each special form is designated in Latin as a forma specialis or "f. sp." All of the formae speciales have an identical appearance, but vary in host range. The pathogen that causes stem rust of wheat (Triticum aestivum) is Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici. Other formae speciales include P. graminis f.sp. secalis, causal agent of stem rust of rye (Secale cereale), and P. graminis f.sp. avenae, causal agent of stem rust of oat (Avena sativa). Both Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici and P. graminis f.sp. secalis cause stem rust in barley. About 1916, E.C. Stakman and others determined that within P. graminis f.sp. tritici are further genetic subdivisions called races. Later, races were found within other formae speciales as well.

The disease cycle of wheat stem rust starts with the exposure of each new wheat crop to spores of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, which are the primary inoculum. The source of the first spores that infect the new wheat crop differs depending on the region in which the wheat is grown. In warm climates, wheat is planted in late fall and harvested in early summer. The first spores to infect the young wheat plants in the fall are urediniospores. They generally come from infected volunteer wheat plants. Seed spilled in the field or on roadsides at harvest time often sprout and produce scattered volunteer plants. These plants can become infected from spores produced on late-maturing wheat plants still in the field. The infected volunteer wheat plants serve as a bridge that carries P. graminis f. sp. tritici through the summer to the next fall-sown crop of wheat.

In regions with temperate climates, wheat may be planted either in the fall (winter wheat) or the spring (spring wheat) depending on the severity of the winters (Figure 12). For example, few winter wheat varieties can survive well through the severe winters of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Manitoba, so most of the wheat grown there is spring wheat. The first rust spores to infect wheat in the spring in temperate regions may be aeciospores from barberry, the alternate host, or urediniospores from infected wheat in distant regions with milder winters. Therefore, we describe two disease cycles for stem rust - with or without barberry.

Disease cycle, with barberry Barberry is the most dangerous source of primary inoculum of stem rust in temperate regions. If barberry grows near wheat fields, it will be a consistent source of aeciospores for the earliest infections of wheat in the spring (Figure 13).

Puccinia graminis overwinters as black, thick-walled, diploid teliospores that are produced on wheat or other grass hosts toward the end of the growing season (Figure 5). Karyogamy (fusion of two haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus) and meiosis (reduction division to produce four haploid basidiospores) take place in the teliospore. Teliospores are produced in a telium.

In the spring, each teliospore germinates to produce thin-walled, colorless, haploid basidiospores (Figure 14). Basidiospores infect the alternate hosts such as common barberry.

Basidiospores germinate and produce a haploid mycelium which colonizes the leaf tissue. From this mycelium, pycnia are formed inside the leaf but with the tops extending through the surface, usually in the upper surface, of barberry leaves. Pycnia produce receptive hyphae and pycniospores (Figure 15). No further development will occur until the receptive hyphae in the pycnium are fertilized by pycniospores from a pycnium of a different mating type. Pycnia and pycniospores are referred to as spermagonia and spermatia by some authors, but the former are the preferred terms of rust specialists.

Pycniospores (Figure 16) are produced in a sticky honeydew that is attractive to insects and helps ensure that successful cross-fertilization occurs (figure 8). Insects carry pycniospores from one pycnium to another as they forage across the leaves feeding on the honeydew. Splashing raindrops also disperse pycniospores and aid in cross-fertilization. Fertilization of pycnia is critical in the rust fungus life cycle, because it gives rise to the dikaryotic mycelium. After the nucleus of the pycniospore joins that of the receptive hypha, the paired, haploid nuclei divide in tandem in the mycelium throughout the remaining stages of the life cycle. All stem rust infections of wheat or other grasses involve dikaryotic spores and dikaryotic mycelium.

Over a period of days, the dikaryotic mycelium grows through the barberry leaf until a new structure, the aecium, breaks through the lower surface of the leaf to release the dikaryotic aeciospores (Figure 10). Aeciospores, although produced on barberry plants, can infect only wheat or other grass host of P. graminis. Aeciospores (Figure 11) differ from urediniospores, which also infect wheat, in their appearance - slightly warty rather than spiny - and in the way in which they are formed - in chains in an aecium rather than on individual stalks in a uredinium.

On wheat, aeciospores germinate, the germ tubes penetrate into the plants, and the fungus grows as dikaryotic mycelium. Within 1 to 2 weeks, the mycelium in each infection produces a uredinium filled with brick-red, spiny, dikaryotic urediniospores that break through the leaf or stem epidermis (Figure 1).

In heteroecious rusts, this important spore stage is called the "repeating stage," because urediniospores are the only rust spores that can infect the host plant on which they are produced. Under favorable environmental conditions, multiple, repeated infections of the same wheat plant and neighboring wheat plants can result in explosive epidemics.

Toward the end of the growing season, black overwintering teliospores are formed in telia (Figure 5), and the life cycle is completed. Because karyogamy and meiosis take place in the teliospore (Figure 6), this spore stage is an important source of genetic recombination in addition to its role as a survival spore.

Disease cycle, without barberry In North America, stem rust epidemics can occur in temperate regions even if barberry is not present (Figure 17). In the absence of barberry, the first spores of P. graminis to reach wheat in the spring are windborne urediniospores produced on winter wheat crops to the south (Figure 18). The mild climate along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico allows P. graminis to survive and spread in fields of winter wheat. Prevailing southerly winds in the spring carry the urediniospores north into the central Great Plains where they infect other winter wheat plants. Weather in the central Great Plains is usually too cold to permit stem rust infections during the winter. When spring wheat begins to grow in the northern Great Plains, it may be infected by windborne urediniospores from either the central or southern Great Plains. The stem rust disease cycle in the North ends with the wheat harvest.

In the South, the stem rust disease cycle starts with urediniospores that infect winter wheat seedlings after the fall planting. Most, if not all, of the primary inoculum is local. It comes from volunteer wheat plants that sprouted and became infected in the summer. Spread of urediniospores from north to south is not likely to be important. Spring wheat in the North is harvested in August, long before the new winter wheat crop has emerged in the South, where planting may not start until October or later. Barberry plants do not become infected in the South, so they are not a factor in stem rust epidemics there. This is because P. graminis teliospores will not germinate unless exposed to extended periods of freezing temperatures.

Stem rust is favored by hot days (25-30C/ 77-86F), mild nights (15-20C/ 59-68F), and wet leaves from rain or dew. Both aeciospores and urediniospores require free water for germination as do the other spore stages. Infections occur through stomata.

The source of inoculum can be predicted from the pattern of the rust disease. If inoculum comes from barberry, a point source, the resulting disease pattern is usually fan-shaped with the alternate host at the apex of the fan (Figure 13). If disease has a more uniform pattern, the inoculum source is usually from a broad area, such as the southern wheat crops (in the northern hemisphere) from which urediniospores are released. Scattered infections mainly on the top leaves in a wheat field indicate that airborne spores were carried into the field from an external source. Rainfall is important for spore deposition during long distance dispersal of the spores.

If disease develops in individual foci within a wheat field, the source of urediniospores is probably overwintering mycelia and/or uredinia. Rusted plants in foci from overwintering sources have heavy infection in lower leaves and less infection in the younger leaves formed higher on the wheat plants.

In the absence of barberry or other alternate hosts, urediniospores are the only functional spores in the disease cycle of P. graminis. In tropical and subtropical climates, mycelium and urediniospores on volunteer wheat and noncrop grass hosts begin epidemics. Urediniospores are generally unable to survive harsh winter conditions. In the Northern Hemisphere, inoculum for spring wheat arrives from southern areas. In the Southern Hemisphere, urediniospores arrive from milder areas in the north. Occasionally, P. graminis can overwinter in wheat volunteers, noncrop grass hosts, and winter wheat, but usually only where snow cover insulates both the wheat leaves and the fungal mycelium. This is most likely to occur where winter wheat is planted directly into wheat stubble from the previous crop.

Urediniospores are produced approximately 7 to 15 days after infection, so there can be multiple generations of inoculum produced during a single growing season. One uredinium can produce at least 100,000 urediniospores. Explosive epidemics can occur during favorable environmental conditions, resulting in losses of 50 to 70% over a region.

Stem rust causes cereal yield losses in several ways. The fungus absorbs nutrients from the plant tissues that would be used for grain development in a healthy plant. As pustules break through the epidermal tissue, it becomes difficult for the plant to control transpiration, so its metabolism becomes less efficient. Desiccation or infection by other fungi and bacteria also can occur. Interference with the vascular tissues results in shriveled grains. Stem rust also can weaken wheat stems, so plants lodge, or fall over, in heavy winds and rain (Figure 19). Where severe lodging occurs, crops cannot be mechanically harvested.

Barberry eradication: Once the life cycle of P. graminis was determined, the potential effects of the removal of the barberry alternate host became clear (Figures 20, 21). An expensive and extensive barberry survey (Figure 22) and eradication program was initiated in 1918 in the U.S. (Figure 23) and continues to a limited extent today (Figure 24).

It was originally hoped that the program would eliminate stem rust as a significant disease in North America, because the basidiospores would have no barberry hosts to infect, and urediniospores could not usually survive harsh winter conditions. The importance of continental spread of stem rust epidemics was not understood until later. Urediniospores overwinter in wheat fields in the southern U.S. and northern Mexico and are then airborne northward via what is now called the "Puccinia Pathway" (Figure 25). If the weather is favorable for stem rust development in the South, urediniospores will arrive in time and in sufficient numbers to cause epidemics in northern wheat-growing areas.

Despite this problem, barberry eradication has had significant positive effects on the control of stem rust epidemics. First, it removed a significant, early source of inoculum. A single barberry plant can produce as many as 64 billion aeciospores. Second, it reduced the genetic variation in the fungal population by eliminating the sexual cycle, leaving only asexual urediniospores to maintain the fungus. Mutation is now the primary source of genetic variation. Consequently, there are no longer so many different races of wheat stem rust against which wheat breeders must seek resistance. Finally, epidemics are delayed by several weeks in many of the major wheat producing areas of the U.S. and Canada because aeciospores were released before the first arrival of urediniospores from the south.

Cultural practices It has long been known that moisture on leaves and excessive foliar nitrogen favor infections by rust fungi. Farmers consider these factors in spacing, row orientation, and fertilizer schedules. Recent changes in production practices may have effects on stem rust. In some areas, summer wheat crops are irrigated, which may increase the survival of infected volunteer plants. In addition, many farmers are practicing no-till or minimum tillage. This increases the probability that rust fungi may successfully overwinter in the protective layer of stubble from the previous crop.

Use of earlier-maturing wheat varieties in the central Great Plains of the U.S. has helped reduce the threat of stem rust epidemics. Modern wheat varieties in that region mature about 2 weeks earlier than older varieties. This limits the length of time for stem rust epidemics to develop in the central Great Plains as well as the numbers of urediniospores that can contribute to epidemics farther north.

Genetic resistance Genetic resistance is the most commonly used and the most effective means to control stem rust. Its success in North America is directly related to the reduced number of races present in the fungal population following the barberry eradication program. Because funding for the program has been reduced in recent years, scientists feared that the remaining barberry bushes will continue to spread into the wheat growing areas to serve both as a source of inoculum and as a means by which the fungus can complete its sexual cycle. Also, scientists realized that even in the absence of barberry, the currently used resistance genes should not be expected to remain effective indefinitely as new races of the fungus continue to arise by mutation. At least 50 distinct genes for race-specific (vertical) resistance to stem rust have been identified in wheat or transferred to wheat by wide crosses to wild relatives of wheat. Not all of these resistance genes are equally useful. Many were quickly discarded from wheat breeding programs, because virulent races that could overcome their resistance were found to be already prevalent in the fungus population. Others appeared to be widely effective when first used, but new virulent races of the fungus appeared within a few years of widespread use of the new resistance.

For reasons that we do not fully understand, a few genes for race-specific (vertical) resistance to stem rust in wheat remained highly effective for many years. The most successful of these was Sr31, a gene that occurs on a segment of a chromosome from rye that was transferred into wheat by a complicated process of interspecific hybridization. Wheat with Sr31 quickly became popular worldwide, because, in addition to Sr31, the rye chromosome segment also carried genes for increased grain yield as well as additional genes for resistance to other rust diseases. Since the 1980s, wheat varieties with Sr31 were widely grown in nearly every major wheat-producing region throughout the world other than Australia. The effectiveness of Sr31 was so great that wheat stem rust declined to almost insignificant levels nearly everywhere in the world by the mid-1990s.

Recently, the resistance of Sr31 was finally overcome. A new race of the wheat stem rust fungus highly virulent to wheat varieties with Sr31 was found in Uganda in 1999. The new race, tentatively designated Ug99, rapidly dominated the fungus population in Uganda and spread to Kenya and Ethiopia where it caused major epidemics. Within a few years, Ug99 was found in South Africa and in Yemen, from which it has spread to the north and east as far as Iran. It seems inevitable that Ug99 will soon invade one of the world's richest wheat producing areas in the Punjab of India. Previous examples of long distance dispersal of rust fungi include spread of a unique race of wheat stem rust from South Africa to Australia, spread of coffee rust from Africa to South America, and spread of southern corn rust from Central America to Africa. To make matters worse, the Ug99 lineage of the stem rust fungus has expanded its virulence through mutations that allow it to overcome the resistance of at least two other vertical resistance genes that wheat breeders have relied on for protection from stem rust in North America and many other parts of the world.

In response to the threat of impending wheat stem rust epidemics around the world, an international effort was organized in 2008 to reduce the vulnerability of the world's wheat crops to rust diseases. The organization, the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative, is coordinated by staff at Cornell University and includes research leaders from two international agricultural research centers, CIMMYT and ICARDA, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Primary efforts are concentrated on developing and deploying new effective resistance to wheat stem rust globally. Vertical resistance must be considered in the short term even though the durability of the resistance may be questionable. Combining two or more effective vertical resistance genes will provide a better chance for longer lasting resistance. For the long term, however, wheat breeders may rely more on minor genes with additive effects of partial resistance expressed primarily in adult plants (i.e., horizontal resistance). A number of high yielding wheat lines with moderate levels of horizontal resistance have already been developed at the International Center for Wheat and Maize Research (CIMMYT). These advanced lines are being intercrossed to produce improved wheat varieties combining as many as four or five horizontal resistance genes to effectively suppress stem rust epidemics. To preserve these effective combinations of horizontal resistance genes even when the Ug99 epidemics subside, it will be necessary to identify genetic markers for each of the genes so that breeders can continue to select for their presence even in the absence of disease.

Chemical control In some areas where disease pressure is high, fungicides are applied to wheat to control rust diseases. Fungicides that inhibit the synthesis of sterols [i.e., sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBIs) or demethylation inhibitors (DMIs)] are particularly effective, but the cost of application is generally prohibitive for routine use in most wheat-growing areas in the U.S.

Potential approaches to management Urediniospores infect wheat only through stomata. Scientists have studied how germinating urediniospores locate stomata on leaf surfaces (Figure 27). Although several factors are involved, the germ tube is able to detect the guard cells by their physical dimensions relative to the epidermal cells. Once a stoma is found, an appressorium is produced and infection begins. In the future, it may be possible to breed wheat resistant that is resistant to urediniospore infection because it has epidermal patterns that are not recognized by the fungus.

Stem rust is one of the major diseases of wheat and barley and, therefore, a potential threat to the world food supply. Wheat is the largest food crop in the world, and barley is the sixth largest. Together, they account for more than 25% of the world food supply. It is estimated that more than $5 billion are lost to cereal rusts (leaf rust, stem rust, and stripe rust) each year. Cereal rusts have probably been a problem since the first cereal crops were grown in the Fertile Crescent. Spores of P. graminis have been found in archeological sites in Israel dating from 1300 B.C. Wheat, barley, and barberry all originated in the Fertile Crescent, so this complex relationship in the stem rust life cycle has an ancient history.

Wheat stem rust was a serious problem in ancient Greece and Rome. Rust was observed and recognized as early as the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). The ancient Romans sacrificed red animals such as dogs, foxes, and cows to the rust god, Robigo or Robigus, each spring during the festival called the Robigalia in hopes that the wheat crop would be spared from the ravages of the rust (Figure 28). This festival was incorporated into the early Christian calendar as St. Mark's Day or Rogation on April 25. Historical weather records suggest that a series of rainy years, in which rust would have been more severe and wheat harvests reduced, may have contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire.

Although the parasitic nature of stem rust was not known until the 1700s, farmers in Europe had recognized much earlier that barberry was somehow connected to stem rust epidemics in wheat. Laws banning the planting of barberry near wheat fields were first passed in Rouen, France, in 1660.

The Italian scientists Fontana and Tozzetti independently provided the first detailed descriptions of the stem rust fungus in wheat in 1767. Persoon named it Puccinia graminis in 1797. By 1854, the Tulasne brothers recognized that some autoecious (single host) rust fungi could produce as many as five spore stages. They were the first to link the red (urediniospore) and black (teliospore) stages as different spores of the same organism, but the remaining stages of P. graminis remained a mystery.

Anton deBary was puzzled by the lack of infection when basidiospores of P. graminis were placed on wheat plants. Using the farmers' belief that barberries increased wheat rust, he successfully inoculated barberries with the basidiospores and observed the remaining spore stages develop on the alternate host. Once the heteroecious nature of the life cycle was established, many other known rust fungi were discovered to be heteroecious, and their hosts could be paired up.

Both wheat and barberry plants were brought to North America by the European colonists. Barberry has a number of practical uses including a yellow dye from the bark, jams and wines from the berries, tool handles from the wood, and fast-growing, thorny hedges to help retain animals. As in Europe, farmers began to recognize the connection between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. Barberry laws were enacted in several New England colonies in the mid-1700s. However, barberry continued to spread as pioneer farmers moved west. From farmyard plantings, barberry spread into fencerows and woodlots. Barberry bushes can be 3 m (9 ft) high and produce abundant berries that are attractive to birds and animals that feed on them and spread their seeds.

After the devastating 1916 North American stem rust epidemic, a cooperative state and federal barberry eradication program was established in 1918 (Figure 22). This program was partially motivated by the concern about food supplies during war. A "war against barberries" was established that enlisted help from the general population through radio and newspaper ads, extension pamphlets, and booths at fairs urging them to aid in the destruction of barberries. Even school children were encouraged to help find sites where barberry bushes existed (Figure 29). From 1975 through 1980, the program was gradually returned to the jurisdictions of various states. A federal quarantine is still maintained against sale of stem rust-susceptible barberry in states that were part of the barberry eradication program. A barberry testing program was established to ensure that only barberry species and varieties, such as the popular ornamental Japanese barberry, that are immune to stem rust will be grown in the quarantine area.

USDA-ARS Cereal Disease Lab Website: Home page: http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=36-40-05-00

Black Stem Rust Biology and Threat to Wheat Growers (from a presentation to the Central Plant Board Meeting February 5-8, 2001, Lexington, KY). Cereal Disease Laboratory website, University of Minnesota.

Introduction to cereal rusts: http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=9854

Barberry information: http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=9747

Bushnell, W.R. and A.P. Roelfs, 1984. The Cereal Rusts. Vol. 1. Origins, Specificity, Structure, and Physiology. Academic Press, Orlando.

Carefoot, G.L. and E.R. Sprott, 1967. Famine on the Wind. Rand McNally and Co., Chicago.

Cook, R.J. and R.J. Veseth, 1991. Wheat Health Management. American Phytopathological Society Press, St. Paul, MN.

Dubin, H.J. and S. Rajaram, 1996. Breeding disease-resistant wheats for tropical highlands and lowlands. Annual Review of Phytopathology 34:503-526.

Large, E.C. 1940. Advance of the Fungi. Dover Publications, New York.

Leonard, K.J. and L.J. Szabo. 2005. Stem rust of small grains and grasses caused by Puccinia graminis. Molecular Plant Pathology 6:99-111.

Littlefield, L.J. 1981. Biology of the Plant Rusts: An Introduction. Iowa State University Press, Ames.

McIntosh, R.A. and G.N. Brown, 1997. Anticipatory breeding for resistance to rust diseases in wheat. Annual Review of Phytopathology 35:311-326.

Peterson, P.D. (ed.) 2001. Stem Rust of Wheat: From Ancient Enemy to Modern Foe. APS Press. St. Paul, MN.

Roelfs, A.P. 1982. Effects of barberry eradication on stem rust in the United States. Plant Disease 66:177-181.

Roelfs, A.P. 1989. Epidemiology of the cereal rusts in North America. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 11:86-90.

Roelfs, A.P., and W.R. Bushnell, 1985. The Cereal Rusts. Vol. 2. Diseases, Distribution, Epidemiology, and Control. Academic Press, Orlando.

Roelfs, A.P., R.P. Singh, and E.E. Saari, 1992. Rust Diseases of Wheat: Concepts and Methods of Disease Management. CIMMYT, Mexico, D.F.

Borlaug Global Rust Initiative: http://www.globalrust.org/

FAO website on the spread of race Ug99: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/

Singh, R.P., D.P. Hodson, J. Huerta-Espino, Y. Jin, P. Njau, R. Wanyera, S.A. Herrera-Foessel, and R.W. Ward. 2008. Will stem rust destroy the world's wheat crop? Advances in Agronomy 98:272-309. (a pdf file of this reference can be found at http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/bitstream/10113/36520/1/IND44295123.pdf

Stone, M. 2010. Virulent new strains of rust fungus endanger world wheat. Microbe 5:423-428.http://www.microbemagazine.org/index.php/09-2010-home/2849-virulent-new-strains-of-rust-fungus-endanger-world-wheat

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Stem rust of wheat - American Phytopathological Society