By Mitch LeslieOct. 17, 2019 , 2:00 PM
Mice put human runners to shame. Despite taking puny strides, the rodents can log 10 kilometers or more per night on an exercise wheel. But the mice that muscle biologist Eric Olson of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas and colleagues unveiled in 2015 stood out. On a treadmill, the mice could scurry up a steep 10% grade for about 90 minutes before faltering, 31% longer than other rodents. Those iron mice differed from counterparts in just one small waythe researchers had genetically altered the animals to lack one muscle protein. That was enough to unleash superior muscle performance. "It's like you've taken the brakes off," Olson says.
Just as startling was the nature of the crucial protein. Muscles house some gargantuan proteins. Dystrophin, a structural protein whose gene can carry mutations that cause muscular dystrophy, has more than 3600 amino acids. Titin, which acts like a spring to give muscles elasticity, is the biggest known protein, with more than 34,000 amino acids. The protein disabled in the mice has a paltry 46. Although researchers have probed how muscles work for more than 150 years, they had completely missed the huge impact this tiny protein, called myoregulin, has on muscle function.
Olson and his colleagues weren't the only ones to be blindsided by Lilliputian proteins. As scientists now realize, their initial rules for analyzing genomes discriminated against identifying those pint-size molecules. Now, broader criteria and better detection methods are uncovering minuscule proteins by the thousands, not just in mice, but in many other species, including humans. "For the first time, we are about to explore this universe of new proteins," says biochemist Jonathan Weissman of the University of California, San Francisco.
Biologists are just beginning to delve into the functions of those molecules, called microproteins, micropeptides, or miniproteins. But their small size seems to allow them to jam the intricate workings of larger proteins, inhibiting some cellular processes while unleashing others. Early findings suggest microproteins bolster the immune system, control destruction of faulty RNA molecules, protect bacteria from heat and cold, dictate when plants flower, and provide the toxic punch for many types of venom. "There's probably going to be small [proteins] involved in all biological processes. We just haven't looked for them before," says biochemist Alan Saghatelian of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in San Diego, California.
The venom of this predatory water bug has more than a dozen small proteins.
Small proteins also promise to revise the current understanding of the genome. Many appear to be encoded in stretches of DNAand RNAthat were not thought to help build proteins of any sort. Some researchers speculate that the short stretches of DNA could be newborn genes, on their way to evolving into larger genes that make full-size proteins. Thanks in part to small proteins, "We need to rethink what genes are," says microbiologist and molecular biologist Gisela Storz of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development in Bethesda, Maryland.
Despite the remaining mysteries, scientists are already testing potential uses for the molecules. One company sells insecticides derived from small proteins in the poison of an Australian funnel-web spider. And a clinical trial is evaluating an imaging agent based on another minute protein in scorpion venom, designed to highlight the borders of tumors so that surgeons can remove them more precisely. Many drug companies are now searching for small proteins with medical potential, says biochemist Glenn King of the University of Queensland in St. Lucia, Australia. "It's one of the most rapidly growing areas."
Other short amino acidchains, often called peptides or polypeptides, abound in cells, but they are pared-down remnants of bigger predecessors. Myoregulin and its diminutive brethren, in contrast, are born small. How tiny they can be remains unclear. Fruit flies rely on a microprotein with 11 amino acids to grow normal legs, and some microbes may crank out proteins less than 10 amino acids long, notes microbial genomicist Ami Bhatt of Stanford University in Palo Alto, California. But even the largest small proteins don't measure up to average-size proteins such as alpha amylase, a 496amino-acid enzyme in our saliva that breaks down starch.
Few small proteins came to light until recently because of a criterion for identifying genes set about 20 years ago. When scientists analyze an organism's genome, they often scan for open reading frames (ORFs), which are DNA sequences demarcated by signals that tell the cell's ribosomes, its proteinmaking assembly lines, where to start and stop. In part to avoid a data deluge, past researchers typically excluded any ORF that would yield a protein smaller than 100 amino acids in eukaryotes or 50 amino acids in bacteria. In yeast, for example, that cutoff limited the list of ORFs to about 6000.
Relaxing that criterion reveals that cells carry vastly more ORFs. Earlier this year, Stanford postdoc Hila Sberro Livnat, Bhatt, and colleagues trawled genome fragments from the microbes that inhabit four parts of the human body, including the gut and skin. By searching for small ORFs that could encode proteins between five and 50 amino acids long, the researchers identified about 4000 families of potential microproteins. Almost half resemble no known proteins, but the sequence for one small ORF suggested that a corresponding protein resides in ribosomesa hint that it could play some fundamental role. "It's not just genes with esoteric functions that have been missed" when scientists overlooked small ORFs, Bhatt says. "It's genes with core functions."
For the first time, we are about to explore this universe of new proteins.
Other cells also house huge numbers of short ORFsyeast could make more than 260,000 molecules with between two and 99 amino acids, for example. But cells almost certainly don't use all those ORFs, and some of the amino acid strings they produce may not be functional. In 2011, after finding more than 600,000 short ORFs in the fruit fly genome, developmental geneticist Juan Pablo Couso of the University of Sussex in Brighton, U.K., and colleagues tried to whittle down the number. They reasoned that if a particular ORF had an identical or near-identical copy in a related species, it was less likely to be genomic trash. After searching another fruit fly's genome and analyzing other evidence that the sequences were being translated, the group ended up with a more manageable figure of 401 short ORFs likely to yield microproteins. That would still represent a significant fraction of the insects' protein repertoirethey harbor about 22,000 full-size proteins.
Weissman and colleagues found microproteins a second way, through a method they invented to broadly determine which proteins cells are making. To fashion any protein, a cell first copies a gene into messenger RNA. Then ribosomes read the mRNA and string together amino acids in the order it specifies. By sequencing mRNAs attached to ribosomes, Weissman and his team pinpoint which ones cells are actually turning into proteins and where on the RNAs a ribosome starts to read. In a 2011Cellstudy, he and his team applied that ribosome profiling method, also called Ribo-seq, to mouse embryonic stem cells and discovered the cells were making thousands of unexpected proteins, including many that would fall below the 100amino-acid cutoff. "It was quite clear that the standard understanding had ignored a large universe of proteins, many of which were short," Weissman says.
Saghatelian and his colleagues adopted a third approach to discover a trove of microproteins in our own cells. The researchers used mass spectrometry, which involves breaking up proteins into pieces that are sorted by mass to produce a distinctive spectrum for each protein. Saghatelian, his then-postdoc Sarah Slavoff, and colleagues applied the method to protein mixtures from human cells and then subtracted the signatures of known proteins. That approach revealed spectra for 86 previously undiscovered tiny proteins, the smallest just 18 amino acids long, the researchers reported in 2013 inNature Chemical Biology.
Being small limitsa protein's capabilities. Larger proteins fold into complex shapes suited for a particular function, such as catalyzing chemical reactions. Proteins smaller than about 50 to 60 amino acids probably don't fold, says chemist Julio Camarero of the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. So they probably aren't suited to be enzymes or structural proteins.
However, their diminutive size also opens up opportunities. "They are tiny enough to fit into nooks and crannies of larger proteins that function as channels and receptors," Olson says. Small proteins often share short stretches of amino acids with their larger partners and can therefore bind to and alter the activity of those proteins. Bound microproteins can also shepherd bigger molecules to new locationshelping them slip into cell membranes, for instance.
A microprotein in the poison of the deathstalker scorpion has been fused to a fluorescent dye to make tumors emit near-infrared light. (1) A tumor seen in visible light (2)Same tumor in visible and near-infrared light
Because of their attraction to larger proteins, small proteins may give cells a reversible way to switch larger proteins on or off. In a 2016 study inPLOS Genetics, plant developmental biologist Stephan Wenkel of the University of Copenhagen and colleagues genetically alteredArabidopsisplants to produce extra amounts of two small proteins. The plants normally burst into flower when the days are long enough, but when they overproduced the two microproteins, their flowering was postponed. The small proteins caused that delay by blocking a hefty protein called CONSTANS that triggers flowering. They tether CONSTANS to other inhibitory proteins that shut it down. "A cell uses things that help it survive. If a short protein does the job, that's fine," Saghatelian says.
Those jobs include other key tasks. In 2016, Slavoff, Saghatelian, and colleagues revealed that human cells manufacture a 68amino-acid protein they named NoBody that may help manage destruction of faulty or unneeded mRNA molecules. NoBody's name reflects its role in preventing formation of processing bodies (P-bodies), mysterious clusters in the cytoplasm where RNA breakdown may occur. When the protein is missing, more P-bodies form, thus boosting RNA destruction and altering the cell's internal structure. "It shows that small proteins can have massive effects in the cell," Slavoff says.
Muscles appear to depend on a variety of microproteins. During embryonic development, individual muscle cells merge into fibers that power contraction. The 84amino-acid protein myomixer teams up with a larger protein to bring the cells together, Olson's team reported in 2017 inScience. Without it, embryonic mice can't form muscles and are almost transparent.
Later in life, myoregulin steps in to help regulate muscle activity. When a muscle receives a stimulus, cellular storage depots spill calcium, triggering the fibers to contract and generate force. An ion pump called SERCA then starts to return the calcium to storage, allowing the muscle fibers to relax. Myoregulin binds to and inhibits SERCA, Olson's team found. The effect limits how often a mouse's muscles can contractperhaps ensuring that the animal has muscle power in reserve for an emergency, such as escaping a predator. Another small protein, DWORF, has the opposite effect, unleashing SERCA and enabling the muscle to contract repeatedly.
Even extensively studied organisms such as the intestinal bacteriumEscherichia coliharbor unexpected small proteins that have important functions. Storz and her team reported in 2012 that a previously undiscovered 49amino-acid protein called AcrZ helps the microbe survive some antibiotics by stimulating a pump that expels the drugs.
And the venom produced by a variety of organismsincluding spiders, centipedes, scorpions, and poisonous mollusksteems with tiny proteins. Many venom components disable or kill by blocking the channels for sodium or other ions that are necessary for transmission of nerve impulses. Small proteins "hit these ion channels with amazing specificity and potency," King says. "They are the major components of venoms and are responsible for most of the pharmacological and biological effects."
Australia's giant fish-killing water bug, for instance, doesn't just rely on sharp claws and lancelike mouthparts to subdue prey. It injects its victims with a brew of more than 130 proteins, 15 of which have fewer than 100 amino acids, King and colleagues reported last year.
Unlike hulking proteinssuch as antibodies, microproteins delivered by pill or injection may be able to slip into cells and alter their functions. Captopril, the first of a class of drugs for high blood pressure known as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors was developed from a small protein in the venom of a Brazilian pit viper. But the drug, which the Food and Drug Administration approved for sale in the United States in 1981, was discovered by chance, before scientists recognized small proteins as a distinct group. So far, only a few microproteins have reached the market or clinical trials.
Cancer researchers are trying to capitalize on a microprotein in the poison of the deathstalker scorpion (Leiurus quinquestriatus) of Africa and the Middle East. The molecule has a mysterious attraction to tumors. By fusing it to a fluorescent dye, scientists hope to illuminate the borders of brain tumors so that surgeons can safely cut out the cancerous tissue. "It lights up the tumor. You can see the margins and if there are any metastases," King says. A clinical trial is now evaluating whether the dual molecule can help surgeons remove brain tumors in children.
How important small proteins will be for medicine is still unknown, but they have already upended several biological assumptions. Geneticist Norbert Hbner of the Max Delbrck Center for Molecular Medicine in Berlin and colleagues found dozens of new microproteins in human heart cells. The group traced them to an unexpected source: short sequences within long noncoding RNAs, a variety that was thought not to produce proteins. After identifying 169 long noncoding RNAs that were probably being read by ribosomes, Hbner and his team used a type of mass spectrometry to confirm that more than half of them yielded microproteins in heart cells, a result reported earlier this year inCell.
Bacteria such as Escherichia coli also churn out many microproteins, although their functions remain unclear in many cases.
The DNA sequences for other tiny proteins also occur in unconventional locations. For example, some lie near the ORFs for bigger proteins. Researchers previously thought those sequences helped manage the production of the larger proteins, but rarely gave rise to proteins themselves. Some coding sequences for recently discovered microproteins are even nested within sequences that encode other, longer proteins.
Those genomic surprises could illuminate how new genes arise, says evolutionary systems biologist Anne-Ruxandra Carvunis of the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania. Researchers had thought most new genes emerge when existing genes duplicate or fuse, or when species swap DNA. But to Carvunis, microproteins suggest protogenes can form when mutations create new start and stop signals in a noncoding portion of the genome. If the resulting ORF produces a beneficial protein, the novel sequences would remain in the genome and undergo natural selection, eventually evolving into larger genes that code for more complex proteins.
In a 2012 study, Carvunis, who was then a postdoc in the lab of Marc Vidal at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, and colleagues found that yeast translate more than 1000 short ORFs into proteins, implying that these sequences are protogenes. In a new study, Carvunis and her team tested whether young ORFs can be advantageous for cells. They genetically altered yeast to boost output of 285 recently evolved ORFs, most of which code for molecules that are smaller than the standard protein cutoff or just over it. For almost 10% of the proteins, increasing their levels enhanced cell growth in at least one environment. The results, posted on the preprint server bioRxiv, suggest these sequences could be on their way to becoming full-fledged genes, Carvunis says.
Slavoff still recalls being astonished when, during her interview for a postdoc position with Saghatelian, he asked whether she would be willing to go hunting for small proteins. "I had never thought that there could be this whole size of proteins that was dark to us until then."
But the bet paid offshe now runs her own lab that is searching for microproteins. Recently, she unleashed some of her postdocs and graduate students on one of the most studied organisms, the K12 strain ofE. coli.The team soon uncovered five new microproteins. "We are probably only scratching the surface," she says.
Originally posted here:
New universe of miniproteins is upending cell biology and genetics - Science Magazine
- Seattle Genetics Reports Fourth Quarter and Year 2011 Financial Results [Last Updated On: February 13th, 2012] [Originally Added On: February 13th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Loss Narrows; But Stock Down - Update [Last Updated On: February 14th, 2012] [Originally Added On: February 14th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Highlights Updated Survival Data from ADCETRIS® Pivotal Trial in Patients with Relapsed or Refractory ... [Last Updated On: June 15th, 2012] [Originally Added On: June 15th, 2012]
- A Growth-Free Quarter -- and That's OK [Last Updated On: August 11th, 2012] [Originally Added On: August 11th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics and Millennium Complete Enrollment in Phase III AETHERA Trial of ADCETRIS® for Post-Transplant ... [Last Updated On: September 25th, 2012] [Originally Added On: September 25th, 2012]
- ORF Genetics to Offer endotoxin- and Animal-free FGFb and mLIF for Stem Cell Research [Last Updated On: October 4th, 2012] [Originally Added On: October 4th, 2012]
- FAQ-4 of 19: What Chance That Stem Cells Will Help Me When I Get Stem Cell Therapy - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- FAQ-4 of 19: What Is My Chance of Success With Stem Cells in Stem Cell Therapy - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- FAQ-3 of 19 -How Do Stem Cells Work in Stem Cell Therapy? - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- Stem Cell Therapy for osteoarthritis Cosmetic Surgery Thailand Review - Urban Beauty Thailand - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- [RMS] C-Class Stem Cell Processing Center (SPC) - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- FAQ-4 19- What Chances for Stem Cell Success When I Get Stem Cell Therapy? - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- FAQ-4 19- What Chance Stem Cells Can Help Me After Stem Cell Therapy? - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- Is stem cell therapy really effective? - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- STEM CELL THERAPY cure HIV patient - Video [Last Updated On: November 1st, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 1st, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Announces ADCETRIS® Receives European Commission Conditional Marketing Authorization [Last Updated On: November 6th, 2012] [Originally Added On: November 6th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Highlights ADCETRIS® (Brentuximab Vedotin) Data in Relapsed Hodgkin Lymphoma and Other CD30-Positive ... [Last Updated On: December 13th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 13th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Highlights Data Presentations from Genentech ADC Collaborator Programs at ASH Annual Meeting [Last Updated On: December 16th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 16th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Highlights Next Generation Antibody-Drug Conjugate SGN-CD33A at ASH Annual Meeting [Last Updated On: December 16th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 16th, 2012]
- Clinical Data from NewLink Genetics' HyperAcute Prostate Cancer Immunotherapy Published in Journal of Immunotherapy [Last Updated On: December 16th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 16th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Announces Data from Investigator-Sponsored Trials of ADCETRIS® (Brentuximab Vedotin) in Cutaneous T ... [Last Updated On: December 16th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 16th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics Reports Data from Phase I Trial of ADCETRIS® (Brentuximab Vedotin) in Front-line Hodgkin Lymphoma at ... [Last Updated On: December 16th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 16th, 2012]
- Seattle Genetics to test possible new Adcetris use [Last Updated On: December 16th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 16th, 2012]
- Myriad Genetics to Present at the 2013 J.P. Morgan Annual Healthcare Conference [Last Updated On: December 18th, 2012] [Originally Added On: December 18th, 2012]
- Data From SGEN on Cancer Candidate [Last Updated On: January 30th, 2013] [Originally Added On: January 30th, 2013]
- Health Canada Approves ADCETRIS® (Brentuximab Vedotin) for the Treatment of Relapsed or Refractory Hodgkin Lymphoma ... [Last Updated On: February 2nd, 2013] [Originally Added On: February 2nd, 2013]
- Canada Approves Seattle Genetics' Adcetris [Last Updated On: February 5th, 2013] [Originally Added On: February 5th, 2013]
- Canada Approves Seattle Genetics' Adcetris - Analyst Blog [Last Updated On: February 5th, 2013] [Originally Added On: February 5th, 2013]
- ADC Data from Seattle Genetics [Last Updated On: April 11th, 2013] [Originally Added On: April 11th, 2013]
- Genetics of alcoholism research [Last Updated On: April 16th, 2013] [Originally Added On: April 16th, 2013]
- Genetics Policy Institute and univerCELLmarket to co-publish 360 – the Free Newsletter Covering Stem Cells and ... [Last Updated On: April 29th, 2013] [Originally Added On: April 29th, 2013]
- Genetics Policy Institute and univerCELLmarket to co-publish 360 – the Free Newsletter Covering Stem Cells and ... [Last Updated On: May 2nd, 2013] [Originally Added On: May 2nd, 2013]
- Genetics Policy Institute Opens Washington, D.C. Office [Last Updated On: May 7th, 2013] [Originally Added On: May 7th, 2013]
- Seattle Genetics Announces Initiation of Phase 1/2 Trial of ADCETRIS® (Brentuximab Vedotin) in Combination with ... [Last Updated On: June 11th, 2013] [Originally Added On: June 11th, 2013]
- Seattle Genetics Announces Initiation of Phase 1/2 Trial of ADCETRIS® (Brentuximab Vedotin) in Combination with ... [Last Updated On: June 17th, 2013] [Originally Added On: June 17th, 2013]
- Takeda and Seattle Genetics Highlight Post-Hoc Analysis Examining Progression-free Survival with ADCETRIS® ... [Last Updated On: June 19th, 2013] [Originally Added On: June 19th, 2013]
- Seattle Genetics Highlights ADCETRIS® (Brentuximab Vedotin) Clinical Data at International Conference on Malignant ... [Last Updated On: June 22nd, 2013] [Originally Added On: June 22nd, 2013]
- SGEN/Astellas to Co-Develop Another ADC [Last Updated On: June 30th, 2013] [Originally Added On: June 30th, 2013]
- Life Stem Genetics is Pleased to Announce That It Has Completed the First $500,000 Private Placement of the Recently ... [Last Updated On: October 22nd, 2013] [Originally Added On: October 22nd, 2013]
- Life Stem Genetics Strengthens Its Executive Advisory Board by Adding MBAs Matthew Sullivan and Shahab Bakhtyar [Last Updated On: October 29th, 2013] [Originally Added On: October 29th, 2013]
- Seattle Genetics, Inc. Posts Record Adcetris Sales [Last Updated On: October 31st, 2014] [Originally Added On: October 31st, 2014]
- Inbreeding - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [Last Updated On: May 9th, 2015] [Originally Added On: May 9th, 2015]
- Genetics of Colorectal Cancer - National Cancer Institute [Last Updated On: July 16th, 2015] [Originally Added On: July 16th, 2015]
- Seattle Genetics: Advancing Antibody-Drug Conjugates for ... [Last Updated On: August 18th, 2015] [Originally Added On: August 18th, 2015]
- genetics | Britannica.com [Last Updated On: August 25th, 2015] [Originally Added On: August 25th, 2015]
- Genetics and Genetic Disorders and Diseases - WebMD [Last Updated On: September 2nd, 2015] [Originally Added On: September 2nd, 2015]
- Genetics - Biology [Last Updated On: September 2nd, 2015] [Originally Added On: September 2nd, 2015]
- Genetics: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [Last Updated On: September 2nd, 2015] [Originally Added On: September 2nd, 2015]
- Genetics of Skin Cancer - National Cancer Institute [Last Updated On: September 13th, 2015] [Originally Added On: September 13th, 2015]
- Genetics in Georgia | New Georgia Encyclopedia [Last Updated On: September 15th, 2015] [Originally Added On: September 15th, 2015]
- Faculty & Staff | Directory | Medical Partnership [Last Updated On: October 5th, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 5th, 2015]
- Genetics | Learn Science at Scitable [Last Updated On: October 12th, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 12th, 2015]
- Genetics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [Last Updated On: October 15th, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 15th, 2015]
- Department of Genetics || University of Pennsylvania [Last Updated On: October 21st, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 21st, 2015]
- Genetics News - Genetics Science, Genetics Technology, Genetics [Last Updated On: October 21st, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 21st, 2015]
- Home > Genetics | Yale School of Medicine [Last Updated On: October 21st, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 21st, 2015]
- Ology Genetics - AMNH [Last Updated On: October 21st, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 21st, 2015]
- About Genetics | Understanding Genetics [Last Updated On: October 21st, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 21st, 2015]
- Genetics | Article about genetics by The Free Dictionary [Last Updated On: October 21st, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 21st, 2015]
- Genetics - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [Last Updated On: October 21st, 2015] [Originally Added On: October 21st, 2015]
- Cell Size and Scale - Learn Genetics [Last Updated On: September 24th, 2016] [Originally Added On: September 24th, 2016]
- Genetics of Prostate Cancer (PDQ)Health Professional ... [Last Updated On: September 24th, 2016] [Originally Added On: September 24th, 2016]
- Genetics of Skin Cancer (PDQ)Health Professional Version ... [Last Updated On: September 24th, 2016] [Originally Added On: September 24th, 2016]
- Basic Genetics [Last Updated On: September 26th, 2016] [Originally Added On: September 26th, 2016]
- genetics facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com ... [Last Updated On: October 20th, 2016] [Originally Added On: October 20th, 2016]
- Genetics - Wikipedia [Last Updated On: October 20th, 2016] [Originally Added On: October 20th, 2016]
- How culture, passion and genetics are fueling a Nigerian takeover of US sports - CBS sports.com (blog) [Last Updated On: July 1st, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 1st, 2017]
- After vote, Accelerated Genetics slated to merge - La Crosse Tribune [Last Updated On: July 1st, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 1st, 2017]
- Autism genetics, explained | Spectrum | Autism Research News - Spectrum [Last Updated On: July 1st, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 1st, 2017]
- The problematics of genetics and the Aryan issue - The Hindu [Last Updated On: July 1st, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 1st, 2017]
- North American genetics take centre stage in Wicklow - Agriland [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Genetics may lie at the heart of crop yield limitation - Phys.org - Phys.Org [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Research in genetics promises a long-term cure to diseases : Tony Mira, CEO at Ajuba International LLC - ETHealthworld.com [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- NewLink Genetics to Host Its Second Quarter 2017 Financial Results Conference Call on July 28, 2017 - GlobeNewswire (press release) [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Immunotherapy drug targets tumor's genetics instead of body part - Monroe Evening News [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Getting tumors tested for genetics is the latest theory to help drugs target cancer - The Denver Post [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Konica Minolta, With Eye on Health Care, Nears Deal for US Genetics Firm - New York Times [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Memphis Researchers Planning Big Upgrades to Online Genetics Database - Memphis Daily News [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Mosaic (genetics) - Simple English Wikipedia, the free ... [Last Updated On: July 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 10th, 2017]
- Is There a Genetic Limit to Milk Production? - Dairy Herd Management [Last Updated On: July 11th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 11th, 2017]