About 5% to 10% of breast cancers are thought to be hereditary, caused by abnormal genes passed from parent to child.

Genes are short segments of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) found in chromosomes. DNA contains the instructions for building proteins. And proteins control the structure and function of all the cells that make up your body.

Think of your genes as an instruction manual for cell growth and function. Changes or mistakes in the DNA are like typographical errors. They may provide the wrong set of instructions, leading to faulty cell growth or function. In any one person, if there is an error in a gene, that same mistake will appear in all the cells that contain the same gene. This is like having an instruction manual in which all the copies have the same typographical error.

There are two types of DNA changes: those that are inherited and those that happen over time. Inherited DNA changes are passed down from parent to child. Inherited DNA changes are called germ-line alterations or mutations.

DNA changes that happen over the course of a lifetime, as a result of the natural aging process or exposure to chemicals in the environment, are called somatic alterations.

Some DNA changes are harmless, but others can cause disease or other health issues. DNA changes that negatively affect health are called mutations.

Most inherited cases of breast cancer are associated with mutations in two genes: BRCA1 (BReast CAncer gene one) and BRCA2 (BReast CAncer gene two).

Everyone has BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. The function of the BRCA genes is to repair cell damage and keep breast, ovarian, and other cells growing normally. But when these genes contain mutations that are passed from generation to generation, the genes don't function normally and breast, ovarian, and other cancer risk increases. BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations may account for up to 10% of all breast cancers, or 1 out of every 10 cases.

Having a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation doesn't mean you will be diagnosed with breast cancer. Researchers are learning that other mutations in pieces of chromosomes -- called SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) -- may be linked to higher breast cancer risk in women with a BRCA1 mutation as well as women who didn't inherit a breast cancer gene mutation.

Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer and have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation often have a family history of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and other cancers. Still, most people who develop breast cancer did not inherit a genetic mutation linked to breast cancer and have no family history of the disease.

You are substantially more likely to have a genetic mutation linked to breast cancer if:

If one family member has a genetic mutation linked to breast cancer, it does not mean that all family members will have it.

The average woman in the United States has about a 1 in 8, or about 12%, risk of developing breast cancer in her lifetime. Women who have a BRCA1 mutation or BRCA2 mutation (or both) can have up to a 72% risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer during their lifetimes. Breast cancers associated with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation tend to develop in younger women and occur more often in both breasts than cancers in women without these genetic mutations.

Women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation also have an increased risk of developing ovarian, colon, and pancreatic cancers, as well as melanoma.

Men who have a BRCA2 mutation have a higher risk of breast cancer than men who don't -- about 8% by the time they're 80 years old. This is about 80 times greater than average.

Men with a BRCA1 mutation have a slightly higher risk of prostate cancer. Men with a BRCA2 mutation are 7 times more likely than men without the mutation to develop prostate cancer. Other cancer risks, such as cancer of the skin or digestive tract, also may be slightly higher in men with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation.

Mutations in other genes are also associated with breast cancer. These genetic mutations are much less common and don't seem to increase risk as much as BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, which are considered rare. Still, because these genetic mutations are even rarer, they haven't been studied as much as the BRCA mutations.

Inheriting two abnormal copies of the BRCA2, BRIP1, MRE11A, NBN, PALB2, RAD50, or RAD51C genes causes the disease Fanconi anema, which suppresses bone marrow function and leads to extremely low levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. People with Fanconi anemia also have a higher risk of several other types of cancer, including kidney cancer and brain cancer.

There are genetic tests available to determine if someone has a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. A genetic counselor also may order testing for ATM, CDH1, CHEK2, MRE11A, MSH6, NBN, PALB2, PMS2, PTEN, RAD50, RAD51C, SEC23B, or TP53 mutations, individually or as part of a larger gene panel that includes BRCA1 and BRCA2.

For more information, visit the Breastcancer.org Genetic Testing pages.

If you know you have an abnormal gene linked to breast cancer, there are lifestyle choices you can make to keep your risk as low it can be:

These are just a few steps you can take. Review the links on the left side of this page for more options.

Along with these lifestyle choices, there are other risk-reduction options for women at high risk because of abnormal genetics.

Hormonal therapy medicines: Two SERMs (selective estrogen receptor modulators) and two aromatase inhibitors have been shown to reduce the risk of developing hormone-receptor-positive breast cancer in women at high risk.

Hormonal therapy medicines do not reduce the risk of hormone-receptor-negative breast cancer.

More frequent screening: If you're at high risk because of an abnormal breast cancer gene, you and your doctor will develop a screening plan tailored to your unique situation. You may start being screened when you're younger than 40. In addition to the recommended screening guidelines for women at average risk, a screening plan for a woman at high risk may include:

Women with an abnormal breast cancer gene need to be screened twice a year because they have a much higher risk of cancer developing in the time between yearly screenings. For example, the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York, NY recommends that women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene have both a digital mammogram and an MRI scan each year, about 6 months apart (for example, a mammogram in December and an MRI in June).

A breast ultrasound is another powerful tool that can help detect breast cancer in women with an abnormal breast cancer gene. This test does not take the place of digital mammography and MRI scanning.

Talk to your doctor, radiologist, and genetic counselor about developing a specialized program for early detection that addresses your breast cancer risk, meets your individual needs, and gives you peace of mind.

Protective surgery: Removing the healthy breasts and ovaries -- called prophylactic surgery ("prophylactic" means "protective") -- are very aggressive, irreversible risk-reduction options that some women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene choose.

Prophylactic breast surgery may be able to reduce a woman's risk of developing breast cancer by as much as 97%. The surgery removes nearly all of the breast tissue, so there are very few breast cells left behind that could develop into a cancer.

Women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene may reduce their risk of breast cancer by about 50% by having prophylactic ovary and fallopian tube removal (salpingo-oophorectomy) before menopause. Removing the ovaries lowers the risk of breast cancer because the ovaries are the main source of estrogen in a premenopausal womans body. Removing the ovaries doesnt reduce the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women because fat and muscle tissue are the main producers of estrogen in these women. Prophylactic removal of both ovaries and fallopian tubes reduces the risk of ovarian cancer in women at any age, before or after menopause.

Research also has shown that women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene who have prophylactic ovary removal have better survival if they eventually are diagnosed with breast or ovarian cancer.

The benefit of prophylactic surgeries is usually counted one year at a time. Thats why the younger you are at the time of surgery, the larger the potential benefit, and the older you are, the lower the benefit. Also, as you get older youre more likely to develop other medical conditions that affect how long you live, such as diabetes and heart disease.

Of course, each woman's situation is unique. Talk to your doctor about your personal level of risk and how best to manage it.

It's important to remember that no procedure -- not even removing both healthy breasts and ovaries at a young age -- totally eliminates the risk of cancer. There is still a small risk that cancer can develop in the areas where the breasts used to be. Close follow-up is necessary, even after prophylactic surgery.

Prophylactic surgery decisions require a great deal of thought, patience, and discussion with your doctors, genetic counselor, and family over time -- together with a tremendous amount of courage. Take the time you need to consider these options and make decisions that feel comfortable to you.

For more information, visit the Breastcancer.org Prophylactic Mastectomy and Prophylactic Ovary Removal pages.

Think Pink, Live Green: A Step-by-Step Guide to Reducing Your Risk of Breast Cancer teaches you the biology of breast development and how modern life affects breast cancer risk. Order a free booklet by mail or download the PDF of the booklet to learn 31 risk-reducing steps you can take today.

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Genetics: Breast Cancer Risk Factors

By-Laws of the Graduate Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics

Preamble

The Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program (GIDP) is comprised of an integrated set of graduate-level educational activities, both classroom- and research-based, in the broad discipline of genetics. The Program awards a Ph.D. degree in Genetics and in special circumstances an M.S. degree. Faculty members in the Program have primary appointments across many Colleges at the University of Arizona. The Executive Committee will be appointed by and responsible to the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs with the consent of the membership. The Executive Committee serves as the executive, administrative, and policy-making board for the Program. The organization and structure of the Genetics GIDP conforms to the Graduate College policies and to Guidelines of the GIDPs established by the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs.

In addition to its other functions, the Executive Committee, with the input of all the faculty of the Program, provides the direction and leadership necessary to maintain and foster excellence in the Genetics GIDPs educational activities. In accordance with this mandate, the Executive Committee will regularly review and evaluate faculty membership, the Genetics GIDPs educational activities, and any other activities that come under the purvey of this GIDP. These By-Laws constitute the rules that govern the various functions of the Genetics GIDP.

Article I. Executive Committee of the Genetics GIDP

I.1. The Executive Committee is responsible for administering the graduate program, including (i) recruitment and admission of students into the Program, (ii) establishment of program curricula, (iii) establishment of requirements for advancing to candidacy and degree completion, (iv) periodic reviews, typically annually, of student progress, (v) promotion of an environment that facilitates scholarly activities in Genetics, (vi) organization of seminars, student colloquia, journal clubs, and other forums for communication of genetics research, (vii) strategic planning for the future development of the Program, (viii) raising and allocating funds for program activities, (ix) review of faculty membership and participation in the GIDP, and (x) reporting the Programs activities and functions to the faculty and to the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs.

I.2. The Executive Committee will consist of no less than eight faculty members representing a variety of disciplines across the Genetics GIDP, including departments from multiple colleges currently involved in the Program, and one Genetics GIDP student representative, preferably at the level of Candidacy. Faculty members of the Executive Committee will serve a three-year term. Terms will be staggered so that two members of the Executive Committee rotate off the committee every one or two years. The Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs will appoint new faculty members onto the Executive Committee with the consent of the membership. Faculty members of the Executive Committee may serve a maximum of three consecutive terms. The outgoing Chairperson will serve a term on the Executive Committee, after the end of his/her term as Chair, as ex-officio (non-voting) member, in an advisory capacity to aid a smooth transition and help the new Chairperson get up to speed with performing Chair duties. Student representatives serve a one-year term and will be elected by the students in the graduate program.

I.3. The Executive Committee will sanction the establishment of Standing and Ad-hoc Subcommittees as needed for the administration of the Program as defined in Article I, subsection 1.

Article II. Chairperson of the Genetics GIDP

II.1. The Chairperson of the Executive Committee will also be Chair of the Genetics GIDP. The Chair of the Genetics GIDP, with the advice of the Executive Committee and with the input of the faculty, is granted those powers and responsibilities necessary for a well-functioning program.

II.2. Election of the Chairperson. The Dean of the Graduate College, through the Faculty Director of the Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs, will appoint a member of the Executive Committee, nominated with the input from the Genetics faculty, to serve as Chairperson of the Genetics GIDP. Appointment of the Chairperson requires a two-thirds positive vote by Genetics Faculty. A quorum shall constitute one-third of the Genetics faculty members. The Chairperson will serve a five-year term with the possibility of one re-election.

II.3. The duties of the Chairperson of the Genetics GIDP are as follows.

3a. With the advice of the Executive Committee, the Chairperson shall appoint Standing Subcommittees to oversee key functions of the GIDP, including student recruitment, student progress, educational curriculum, scholarly engagement (journal clubs, colloquia, etc.), and submission of appropriate competitive and non-competitive grants.

3b. Call and preside over meetings of the GIDP.

i. meetings of the Executive Committee to be held at least once a semester;

ii. meetings of the entire faculty of the Genetics GIDP to be held at least once per year;

iii. meetings of the duly sanctioned Standing Subcommittees as needed.

3c. Administer the Genetics GIDP budget.

3d. Establish qualifying and thesis committees.

3e. Administer curricular activities and execute the educational directives of the Executive Committee.

3f. Administer student academic affairs.

3g. Supervise the Program Coordinator.

3h. Advise the Dean of the Graduate College by way of the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs on issues pertinent to the Genetics GIDP.

3i. Report at minimum annually to the faculty members on the state of the Genetics GIDP.

Article III. Membership

III.1. The Genetics GIDP faculty members consist of tenured, tenure-eligible, Clinical-Series and Research-Series faculty at the University of Arizona who participate in research and education in genetics.

III.2. Membership criteria.

2a. Faculty members will be nominated by submitting of a request for membership, consisting of a cover letter and a current curriculum vitae, to the Executive Committee. Criteria for membership shall include interest in participation in graduate teaching and research and demonstrated current scholastic activity in the broad field of genetics. Therefore, the cover letter should include a statement of interest addressing the aforementioned points.

2b. Upon evaluation of the request, the Executive Committee will vote on the nominee. If a nominee receives a two-thirds majority vote, the nomination will be forwarded to the Faculty Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs who shall confer membership. New members are required to present a research seminar in the Genetics Seminar Series within one year of joining the Genetics GIDP Program. Continuation of membership is contingent upon meeting the same criteria at periodic review by the Executive Committee.

2c. A member of the Genetics GIDP will be asked to leave the Program if s/he fails to participate in the activities of the Program. Participation in the Program includes service on a Subcommittee, acting as a dissertation/thesis director for a Genetics GIDP graduate student, teaching a graduate course or seminar in Genetics, or continued scholarly productivity in the general area of genetics.

2d. Members dropped from membership may reapply for membership as outlined in Article III, section 2a.

III.3. Membership responsibilities.

3a. Tenure track members of the Genetics GIDP may serve as dissertation/thesis advisors for students in the Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program. Research series faculty who wish to supervise a graduate student must request special permission from the Graduate College, Deans office (Associate Dean Janet Sturman) through the Genetics GIDP, for permission to mentor a student in the Program.

3b. Members of the Genetics GIDP may be asked to serve on the various Subcommittees of the Program, to participate in teaching, to act as a thesis advisor, to serve on a thesis committee, or to participate in other scholarly activities of the program.

3c. Members serving as major advisors for graduate students in the Program, will be expected to share in the support of graduate students in the Program at a level determined by the Executive Committee.

III.4. Voting. Each faculty member of the Genetics GIDP shall have one vote on matters brought to the Program by the Executive Committee. A quorum shall constitute one-third of the faculty membership.

III.5. Annual Genetics GIDP surveys will be sent out to monitor the participation and enthusiasm of the faculty. Questions will include what percentage of faculty time is spent involved at any level with the Genetics GIDP and whether faculty still wish to be involved with the Genetics GIDP program.

Article IV Amendments

These By-Laws will be reviewed and amended as needed by majority vote of the Executive Committee and approved by a two-thirds vote of the Genetics faculty. A quorum shall constitute one-third of the Genetics faculty.

Edited Nov 29, 2017 by the EC

Reviewed Nov 30, 2017 by the Genetics faculty

Approved Dec 5, 2017 by Genetics faculty vote

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Genetics | Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs