Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of 41 participants. There were 24 females and 17 males, with 16 participants in their 30s, 14 in their 40s, and 11 in their 50s. Ethnic distribution followed 61%, 15%, and 20% for Chinese, Malay, and Indian, respectively.
Table 2 presents a hierarchal thematic scheme of the novel findings. We identified 5 main themes, each with 3 sub-themes: (i) perceptions of diabetes, (ii) sources of perceptions, (iii) relational identity between food and T2D, (iv) perceived losses from healthy eating in T2D, and (v) perceived gains from physical activity in T2D. Even though the findings are categorized by the domains of inquiry, all the sub-themes are interrelated and create the narrative of the given context.
All the participants were aware of diabetes with a good understanding of its risk factors, like obesity, family history, dietary habits, and sedentary lifestyle. Commonly cited symptoms included increased thirst, frequent urination, changes in weight, and sweet pee which attracted ants. A few responded there would be no visual symptoms until a blood test has been taken. Participants also had a good understanding of the disease progression. Apart from the cost of treatment, the initial stages of the disease management were perceived as inconvenient due to the daily medications and diet considerations.
If I had it, I had to take medications regularly and properly. I had to bring medications with me. Its inconvenient. If I were to be in a social setting, Id be like, Oh, Im sorry, I cant eat this or drink that or like I need to take my medication. Then, people would look at me weirdly. Id be like, Should I explain or not? (30s, F, Chinese)
Later stages of T2D were perceived as disastrous to quality life due to the complications arising from T2D. Many participants were concerned that they may become a burden and be unable to care for others. Complications of T2D were associated with disabilities that could cause (loss of) ability to work, (and) ability to live independently.
There is a risk of complications like having kidney problems, amputations, or maybe even blindness, or losing your sensitivity, your extremities. These are the complications that someone with diabetes will have to anticipate. But if I develop complications that result in me developing blindness or limb amputation, that one will be quite disastrous to the quality of my life. (30s, M, Chinese)
However, most participants expressed that the development of these complications would be far away, and the progression from the initial stage to complications would be slow. They believed such a slower progression of diabetes compared to other diseases meant that it was not as life-threatening and that diabetic patients have an opportunity to control and manage diabetes with medication and lifestyle adjustment.
You may have diabetes, but it may not happen like a one-shot. For diabetes, first, you have medication to manage it. You have time for treatment. You still can control in a way. You can try to minimise potential injuries. It will not get fatal as compared to heart disease where it strikes up, the recovery time and saving the person is very acute (30s, M, Chinese)
Participants said they actively seek expert knowledge only after specific triggers like health screening results or hearing about T2D diagnosis from their social circles. Some participants found the amount of information and use of jargon overwhelming, and the information on actionable steps sometimes contradicting.
I usually inquire into a condition when somebody I know is diagnosed with the condition. It usually takes a few searches to understand because there are many sources, which tend to be overly clinical in their jargon, which is not very helpful and only targeted to medical professionals. Usually, the contradictions are not in the diagnosis but understanding if it is major or minor, or if any meaningful action should be taken. (50s, M, Chinese)
Hence, many lay perceptions were influenced by the media portrayal of diabetic patients. Participants recollected that the characters with diabetes in the media were often in the later stages with limb amputations, which were somewhat disturbing. However, diabetes was rarely reported as a cause of death, even if it was an underlying health condition.
To me, diabetes is a bit far away. We hear about stroke and heart attacks when the media reports that somebody collapsed while jogging. Whereas, when somebody dies from diabetes, we dont usually read it in the papers. You might die of heart attack with a pre-existing condition of diabetes. But people just report your heart attack. Diabetes tends to be at the back of everybodys mind. It exists, but the media doesnt put it in the spotlight that often. (30s, M, Chinese)
For participants who had family, relatives, or friends with T2D, their perceptions of the disease cause, risk, and consequence of diabetes were influenced by what they observed and heard from the patients. In particular, participants who had parents and relatives with late stage-associated conditions, their descriptions about the impact of T2D on life were specific and vivid.
She suddenly started to bleed very badly after just gently scratching a black spot, but she didnt feel any pain. She passed out at home because of the excess bleeding. We had to call the ambulance, and she had to go for another operation for her leg. When you have diabetes, it will take longer for the wounds to be healed, so it took her a long time to heal. This is a real problem. (40s, F, Indian)
Common factors influencing perceived risk among participants were poor health screening results, obesity, positive family history, and unhealthy practices, especially around dietary choices. Many participants perceived that having too much sugar was the main cause of diabetes, which translated to reduced perceived susceptibility of T2D among those who did not have many sugary foods.
I think my risk is very low. I am someone who is not into sugar - I dont drink bubble tea, I don't have a lot of sweets, biscuits or cakes or chocolates. I dont have that kind of craving. (40s, F, Chinese)
Several participants said when friends and families speak about diabetes, it is usually candidly referring to having too many sweet food items. However, the colloquial reference to sweet foods and sugar as the cause of diabetes did not reduce the consumption of these foods.
When you have a gathering, you look at the amount of food and sugar. Then, you casually say like this is going to get me diabetes. But its a form of a joke than anything serious. (40s, M, Malay)
Participants were asked to share how they thought their lives could be impacted if they were to be diagnosed with T2D. A common perceived loss was related to the restriction of diet to manage T2D.
If I had diabetes, I would have to have a more restrictive lifestyle. I would not be able to eat as much of the food that I enjoy snacking, eating ice cream and things like this. I myself have sweet tooth. For me having to be a bit more restrictive would be quite a downer (30s, M, Chinese)
Many participants shared that the diet restriction was particularly impactful in Singapore as the local food culture is important in shaping the Singaporean identity. With the variety of food, there were expectations of having a certain level of culinary experience during social gatherings.
Given that we are Singaporeans, we love to eat. It is difficult to maintain a healthy lifestyle or a healthy diet. Our culture is about eating we have a fusion of food and all kinds of foods from all around the world. Even if healthier, people do not want to meet friends over a fruit platter. They will meet for a Korean barbeque. So, from a cultural perspective, its very hard to disconnect from food. (30, M, Chinese)
Participants defined good food as tasty and cheap and shared that people are willing to travel significant distances in search of good food. Singaporeans take pride in finding food that has the best value for money, and this pursuit is often a topic of conversation among friends and family.
I think it is difficult for people to control their diet. Singaporeans like to travel around to find food to eat. They might be living in [a neighbourhood in the east], but they do not mind travelling to [a neighbourhood in the west]. They want the best food that they can get for the three dollars fifty cents. They will talk to each other about where to go and what to eat. They enjoy eating so much and want total value for money in getting the best bang for their buck. (40s, M, Indian)
Participants pointed out the convenience, ease of access, and budget-friendly options; hawker centres located within every public housing estate providing diverse local cuisines quickly and cheaply. Furthermore, in recent years options of delivery service and the availability of all types of cuisine, one can access cheaper and more delicious food any time, from the comfort of home.
When you are craving something, or you want to eat something, usually I must travel all the way there. But now everything is a lot easier to eat something, and it will come to your doorstep. Even if I am tired or it is late at night, and I feel like having ice cream, there is [food delivery platform]. So, there are a lot more opportunities to indulge in these kinds of things. (30s, F, Chinese)
Conversely, many participants pointed out that healthy food options are more expensive and can take a long time to prepare.
In Singapore, the faster and cheaper options are unhealthy. So, if you want to prepare healthy food, and you have working hours, you need to make a lot of sacrifices like wake up early or prepare it the night before. And the ingredients for healthy meals are not cheap. (40s, F, Malay)
When speaking of restrictive diet and healthy eating, participants alluded to a loss in their lifestyle due to reduced enjoyment and impaired social interactions associated with food. Social relationships and celebrations are centred on food, and declining food or refusing to eat could be interpreted as an insult to the host. This was mentioned by participants across all the ethnic groups.
Youre stopping me from eating my favourite food, you know? I rather die. What makes it really hard is that any form of Chinese celebration has got to do with food. The bigger the celebration, the more food we have. Its like, if you dont eat, youre extremely rude its insulting not to eat something that is placed before you. (50s, M, Chinese)
Many participants also shared that eating provided a source of enjoyment and that some participants turned to food when they were upset or stressed. While some participants shared that they exercise to de-stress, some participants shared that they eat to de-stress. A participant mentioned the endorphins released when exercising, while another said the same but when indulging in delicious food. While there was awareness for the need to mitigate the effects of unhealthy eating, it came in the form of compromising other meals instead of giving up the pleasure derived from unhealthy foods.
The only thing that Im doing now to control my eating is trying not to have breakfast in the morning. I will just try to have lunch and dinner, but it is usually not controlled. I should stop eating less fried food. But I dont think I can give up fried chicken that easily. Its just really too good to give up. (30, M, Chinese)
Similarly, some participants expressed that they justify their eating habits by having earned their calories after exercising and consider their indulgence as a reward. The influence of social media culture was also reported, where people post pictures of the aesthetics of the setting and the food. Participants shared that social identity is associated with food and enjoying life, and rarely with healthy eating in the context.
People eat to survive. But for me, I live to eat because I love to eat. So, if Im not happy, I need to eat to be happy. I love food. To continue eating unhealthy food, I compensate for it by doing more exercise. So, I had the calories burned to eat. If I dont exercise and eat, Ill get fat or something like that. But if I exercise and eat, it can balance out, right? Nowadays, people post their food on social media. Wow, theyre so yummy! But, if you burn a fish at home, you wouldnt post on social media. You will only post nice and presentable ones. (40s, F, Chinese)
Demanding work environments and familial responsibilities created multiple competing priorities even though exercise is desirable. These responsibilities often lead to sacrificing sleep, poor eating habits, and exercise time to meet these expectations. Participants shared that Singapores competitive work environment creates high-stress situations. There is an expectation to constantly improve skills and qualifications to ensure job security.
Stress is one contributing factor. People tend to eat more and badly when they have stress. People want to have job security. Now there is digital disruption, so you can become invalid, which is quite scary. So, we need to upgrade ourselves. I have attended many courses, and I will attend more, so there is no time to exercise sometimes even though I want to. (40s, M, Others)
Participants, especially mothers, shared that time for themselves when they could exercise is seen as a luxury or culturally challenging. A Muslim woman shared how she felt different and watched when running with a hijab, a head covering worn by many Muslim women. Internalised expectations of clothing worn during exercise contrasted with wearing a hijab, creating potential psychological barriers.
Im making a conscious effort, but it is really tough for me to find a time with kids, work, and everything. Most of the days, as a working mom, I seldom get time for myself to do what I want. You feel good about yourself with those endorphins. It is very good to mentally detox by getting away from home and kids. But, when I ran in the park, I used to feel a bit shy and embarrassed because I was wearing hijab, and then I felt like everyone was looking at me (30s, F, Indian)
Despite these challenges, there is interest to engage as several participants shared their rewarding experiences from physical activity. When talking about physical activity, participants alluded to a gain, citing how they feel lighter and good after exercising. Participants shared that initial adoption of physical activity was often in response to an external cue, including a worrying health screening result or a recent loss of life. Accountability through exercise programmes or friends or incentives were cited as facilitators of engaging in physical activity. However, the reasons to sustain behaviour were to ensure they could maintain their physical appearance, retain independence and physical mobility to continue doing the things they enjoy, or continue experiencing the immediate benefits and enjoyment of certain exercises.
I dont want to be obese or unhealthy. I dont want to inject myself all the time or spend my hard-earned money on doctors or medications. So, I exercise. Then, Ill feel lighter. Ill feel good, fit. Ill be happy, and I can do a lot of things. Through all these exercises, my muscle wont be so stiff. I can do a lot of things together with my children. I can cook for them and continue to work. Then I can go travel if money permits. (50s. F. Chinese)
Many participants also reported that observing self-improvement by tracking progress acted as positive feedback for their self-efficacy, and in return, motivated them to exercise further or longer. Participants who exercise regularly also pointed out that exercise is a more individual activity, and therefore it is not affected like healthy eating by its social context.
One day you cycle down a road, you see some things and buildings. Then the next time, you motivate yourself to cycle further. Its with running also in my mind, I will motivate myself to jog slowly. And then now I can run to this place, to that place, and then further. Then slowly, I can run back. It motivates me. So every time, you look for a new goal to achieve. I can go somewhere further, you know? (40s, F, Chinese)
